Electric current in nature. I understand how electricity is generated. But where does electricity come from? What is current, its nature? electrical voltage

Theoretical electrical engineering

UDC 621.3.022:537.311.8

M.I. Baranov

QUANTUM-WAVE NATURE OF ELECTRIC CURRENT IN A METAL CONDUCTOR AND ITS SOME ELECTROPHYSICAL MACRO-MANIFESTATIONS

Представлені результати теоретичних і експериментальних досліджень хвилевого подовжнього і радіального розподілів вільних електронів, що дрейфують, в круглому однорідному металевому провіднику з імпульсним аксіальним струмом свідчать про квантово-хвилевий характер протікання електричного струму провідності в даному провіднику, що приводить до виникнення в його внутрішній структурі явища квантованої periodic macrolocalization of free electrons.

The presented results of theoretical and experimental studies of the wave longitudinal and radial distributions of drifting free electrons in a round homogeneous metal conductor with a pulsed axial current indicate the quantum-wave nature of the flow of the electric conduction current in the conductor under consideration, leading to the appearance in its internal structure of the phenomenon of quantized periodic macrolocalization of free electrons .

INTRODUCTION

As you know, according to the classical scientific principles of the theory of electricity, the conduction current in a metal conductor is a directed movement of collectivized free electrons in its internal crystalline microstructure. In addition, in non-relativistic physics, it is also known that free electrons, as elementary particles, are formed from valence electrons in a quantum way, energetically excited atoms of a solid conductor material. In a metallic conductor, there is always a huge amount of free electrons with a rest mass me = 9.108-10-31 kg and a bulk density (concentration) ne, which is numerically equal to about 1029 m_3 for the main conductor materials. In the case when a metal conductor with its ends is not included in an electrical circuit with a power source, then its free electrons move randomly in the three-dimensional interatomic space of the conductor. When an electric potential difference (electric voltage) that does not change or arbitrarily changing in time t is applied to a metal conductor, these elementary carriers of electricity begin to drift directionally in it (in one direction with an applied constant and pulsed unipolar electric voltage or in both directions with an alternating voltage applied to it). bipolar electrical voltage of an external power supply). It is this drift of the free electrons of the conductor that will determine the electric conduction current flowing through it.

An equally well-known scientific position in the field of classical and quantum physics is that electrons, as elementary particles, having corpuscular properties, respectively, also have wave properties. This fact just clearly demonstrates to us their duality (duality). It is well known that the wave-particle duality of electrons satisfies the fundamental complementarity principle,

formulated in the 20th century by the outstanding Danish theoretical physicist Niels Bohr. Therefore, the conduction electric current in a metal

conductor represents the propagation of electronic (de Broglie) waves of length Xe in the interatomic space of its crystalline material. Moreover, for the Xe length of the electron wave in the metal of the conductor, the fundamental relation from the field of wave mechanics of the outstanding French theoretical physicist Louis de Broglie is fulfilled:

Xe \u003d I / (sheyD (1)

where I=6.626-10~34 J-s - Planck's constant; ve is the electron drift velocity in the conductor material.

The average drift velocity ue of free electrons in the conductor metal with current u(1:) is determined from the following classical relation:

^e = s0/(e0Ne), (2)

where 50 is the electric current density in the conductor; e0=1.602-10~19 C is the electric charge of the electron.

As for the speed of the chaotic (thermal) movement of free electrons in the conductor metal without current, determined according to the Fermi-Dirac quantum statistics by the Fermi energy Er, then for copper it takes a numerical value of about 1.6-106 m / s. Substituting this value of the speed vue in (1), we find that it will correspond to the length Xe of the electron wave in the copper conductor, which is approximately 0.5-10~9 m. macro-dimensions of real conductors involved in the transmission of electrical energy. In this regard, for free electrons moving in the interatomic space of a solid macroconductor with the indicated thermal velocity v, their wave properties will not play a significant role and, accordingly, have a noticeable effect on the electrophysical processes occurring in it.

From (1) and (2) at 50=106 A/m2 for a copper conductor (ne=16.86-1028 m_3; ye=0.37-10~4 m/s) we find that the Xe length of the electron wave in it will already be a value of about 19.6 m. At large values ​​\u200b\u200bof 50, characteristic of high-current electrical circuits of high-voltage equipment (at current densities of 109 A / m2 or more), the Xe length of the de Broglie wave in the base metals of the current-carrying parts of insulated wires and cables

© M.I. Baranov

(copper and aluminum, for which ye>37-10~3 m / s) will take a value of about 19.6 mm or less. This circumstance is decisive for electrophysicists in their experimental study, under very limited conditions in a high-voltage scientific laboratory, of wave processes accompanying the formation and propagation of the conduction current /0(/) in metal conductors, the real length of which in this case may not exceed 1 m. The above estimated data indicate that due to the relatively low drift velocities ye of free electrons (significantly less than 1 m/s) in the main conductor materials of current conductors, the lengths Xe of electron waves in them become commensurate with their overall macrodimensions (length, width, height or diameter). Therefore, for an applied electrotechnical case associated with the flow of electric current of various types (constant, alternating or pulsed) through metal conductors, the wave properties of free electrons drifting along them begin to play a significant role in the processes of spatial distribution of these electricity carriers in them and, accordingly, Joule heat release.

It is known from the field of mathematical physics (for example, for boundary value problems of mechanical vibrations of a string or membrane) that the analytical solution of partial differential equations describing most physical processes is usually represented by eigenfunctions that have eigenvalues ​​and, accordingly, eigenvalues ​​(for example, integers n=1,2,3,...) . We point out that in quantum physics, which is engaged in the theoretical study of the behavior of various micro-objects (for example, electrons, protons, neutrons, etc.) in various physical fields, described by wave differential equations in partial derivatives, the eigenvalues ​​n are called quantum numbers.

Taking into account the foregoing and the well-known fundamental scientific provisions of modern physics for real physical micro-objects and elementary microparticles, it becomes clear that in metal conductors with an electric conduction current /0(/) under certain conditions and amplitude-time parameters (ATP) of the specified current can appear as wave , and quantum properties of free electrons drifting in their conducting material. The study of these conditions and the ATP of the electric conduction current and, accordingly, the study of its quantum wave nature and its possible both poorly studied and new macromanifestations is today an urgent scientific task in the field of theoretical electrical engineering and electrophysics and applied electrodynamics.

1. FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM OF STUDYING THE QUANTUM-WAVE NATURE OF ELECTRIC CURRENT IN A METAL CONDUCTOR

/0>>Γ0, an axial pulsed current 10(t) of arbitrary ATPs with a high density flows (Fig. 1).

Rice. Fig. 1. Schematic view of the investigated metal conductor with radius r0 and length 10 with axial pulse

current r"0(t) of high density 50(0), containing quantized relatively "hot" width Drz and "cold" width longitudinal conductive sections

We accept that the radius r0 of our conductor is less than the thickness of the current skin layer in its isotropic material, and the current 10(t) flowing through it is distributed over its cross section t0 with an averaged density 5o(0=/o^)/50| in it. We neglect the influence of drifting free electrons on each other and the ions of the crystal lattice of the conductor material on these itinerant electrons.The approximation we use corresponds to the well-known Hartree-Fock approximation, which is the basis of the classical band theory of metals.Note that this one-electron approximation, which does not take into account electron-ion interactions in the internal structure of the conductor, is unacceptable for studying the case of ideal electronic conductivity of metals (the phenomenon of their superconductivity), when it is necessary to consider the correlation motion of electron pairs and which is characterized by superfluidity of free electrons with its inherent absence of scattering of electron de Broglie waves on thermal vibrations of ions (phonons ) crystal lattice of a metallic conductor. Let us assume that the spatial distributions along the coordinates r and r of free electrons in the material of the investigated conductor with a pulsed current 1 $) will approximately obey the corresponding one-dimensional Schrödinger wave equations. Then for the considered carriers of electricity, only their probabilistic characteristics will have physical meaning, and the concept of the location of a free electron in a metal conductor with a pulsed current 10(() we have to replace with the concept of the probability of its detection in one or another element of the cylindrical volume of the conductor. Required on the basis of quantum mechanical approach, describe in an approximate form the wave longitudinal and radial distributions of drifting free electrons in the conductor under study with a pulsed axial current /0(/), establish with their help the main features of the quantum-wave nature of this conduction current, and use a powerful high-voltage generator of aperiodic pulsed currents to perform an experimental verification of the quantum mechanical approach proposed by the author and some of the results obtained with its help of an approximate calculation of the longitudinal distribution in it

de Broglie electron waves and due to their scattering on thermal vibrations of the ions of the crystal lattice of a metal conductor, the features of its temperature field.

2. APPROXIMATE SOLUTION FOR THE WAVE LONGITUDINAL DISTRIBUTION OF FREE

Earlier, based on the solution of the nonrelativistic one-dimensional time Schrödinger wave equation, which is a partial differential equation and determines the dynamic propagation in space and time t of one or another plane wave of matter, it was shown by the author that in a metal conductor with a pulsed axial current i0(t) the quantized wave function rr, which describes in the first approximation the longitudinal-time distribution of nonrelativistic drifting free electrons in its microscopic structure, has the form:

Vnz(z0 = AZ ■ sin(knzz) ■ (cosrnenzt -i sinrnenzt) (4mel02); knz=nn/l0 - quantized longitudinal wave number; z - current value of the longitudinal coordinate in the conductor material; i=(-1)12 - imaginary unit; n=1,2,3,...,nm - an integer quantum number equal to the mode number of the psi-eigen-wave function ynz(z,t), nm is the maximum value of the quantum number n.

From the analysis of the stationary wave Schrödinger equation and its boundary conditions used in deriving (3), it follows that in the conductor we are considering, drifting free electrons are distributed along its longitudinal axis OZ so that an integer quantum number n of wave psi always fits on the length l0 of the conductor -functions ynz(z,t) for these electrons or de Broglie electronic half-waves, satisfying the relation : nkeJ2=kh (4)

where Xenz=h/(mevenz) is the quantized length of the longitudinal wave of a free electron, equal to the length of the de Broglie standing wave; venz=ttienz%enz/%=nh/(2mel0) - quantized longitudinal velocity of a drifting free electron .

Based on (4), we can formulate the following quantization rule I for longitudinal wave functions ynz(z, t) or electronic (de Broglie) waves in the conductor under study with current i0(t) of arbitrary ATPs: over the length l0 of a metal conductor with electric current i0( t) different types and ATPs must fit the integer quantum number n of de Broglie plane electron half-waves of length \nJ2.

According to to determine in (1) the value of the quantum number nm when choosing the wave functions ynz(z, t), the square of the modulus of which determines the probability density of finding free electrons in one or another place of the interatomic space of the conductor , you can use the following formula:

where nk is the main quantum number, equal to the number of electron shells in each identical atom of the metal

tall of the conductor under consideration and, accordingly, the number of the period in the periodic system of chemical elements D.I. Mendeleev, to whom this metal of the investigated conductor belongs.

In favor of an approximate choice according to (5) of the maximum value of the quantum number n can be evidenced by: firstly, the presence of a solid substance (metal) conductor of a wide absorption region of external electromagnetic radiation, potentially leading to certain differences in the electronic energy configurations of individual atoms of the conductor material; secondly, the fulfillment of the Pauli fundamental principle for the electronic configurations of the atoms of the conductor material (each energy state in an atom of a substance can be occupied by only one electron), according to which the quantum number n can indicate the largest number of energy states of the valence electrons of these atoms.

The superposition of quantized (discrete) modes of the wave functions yn(r, () for each of the values ​​of the quantum number n = 1,2,3, ... and each drifting free electron in the material of the investigated conductor with a pulsed current /0(/) is similarly wide well-known in physics (wave optics) the phenomenon of interference (superposition) of coherent waves (waves that change in concert in time) leads to the formation of quantized wave electron packets (WEP) in the internal conducting structure of the conductor. ,0 in the conductive material of the conductor is: firstly, the coherence of longitudinal (but in its physical essence transverse and linearly polarized) electron waves in the conductor for the considered carriers of electricity; secondly, the fulfillment, according to (4), of the necessary basic conditions for maximum amplification and attenuation coherent longitudinal electron waves when they are superimposed. electron waves in the internal structure of a conductor with current /0(/) are characterized by macroscopic quantities (see Fig. section Introduction), then the geometric dimensions of the WEP will also be of a macroscopic nature. The order of smearing of the boundaries of quantized EWPs along the conductor (the order of interference of quantized longitudinal electron waves of the conductor) will be determined by the degree of monochromaticity of the quantized de Broglie electronic waves and, accordingly, the quantized wave functions yn(r,/). To observe in metal conductors with an electric current /0(/) the interference of quantized longitudinal electron waves of a large order or EWP with clear boundaries, these waves must be practically monochromatic. In the EWP zones, there will be a sharp increase (intensification) of the considered wave functions yng(r, 0), and outside their width there will be a decrease (weakening) of the longitudinal psi-functions yg(r,/) corresponding to expression (3). Due to the fact that the squared modulus of the quantized wave functions (for example, the psi-functions yn(r, 0 according to (3) before their interference) corresponds to the probability density (for example, of the form current, the approximate ratio neg/nex^4/(n-2)~3.5 is fulfilled.It is the specified longitudinal change in the density of drifting free electrons in the conducting material of the conductor that leads to the spatial redistribution of the specific thermal energy released in it. in the region of "hot" longitudinal sections) with an increased density of non-drifting free electrons, the density of thermal energy will increase, and outside the zones of quantized HEP (in the region of "cold" longitudinal sections) with a reduced density With the increase in drifting free electrons, the thermal energy density will decrease. This feature of heat release, theoretically established for the first time by the author for a metal conductor with an electric current i0(t), is in full agreement with the well-known classical position that when coherent plane electromagnetic waves are superimposed, the density of electromagnetic energy increases in the places of their interference maxima, and in the places of their interference minima, the density of electromagnetic energy decreases.

Next, it is necessary to point out that the above-noted change in the density of drifting free electrons along the longitudinal axis OZ of the conductor under study with current t(t) according to the obtained quantized wave functions be of a periodic nature, corresponding to the order of alternation of relatively "hot" and "cold" longitudinal sections formed along the conductor. In this case, the "hot" longitudinal sections with a width Ar, will be located in the zones of formation of the EWP of the conductor, and the "cold" internal longitudinal sections with a width Arn xv - between the HEP zones (see Fig. 1)... At the ends of the conductor (at the points of their connection to the power electrical circuit with alternating (direct) current ^ (() or high-voltage generator of bipolar (unipolar) pulsed current of high density 50) between the extreme VEP and both ends of the conductor will be placed "cold" extreme longitudinal sections with a width Ar "xk. Longitudinal coordinates of the midpoints of the zones of extreme VEP or middle in widths Ar "g" of the "hot" extreme longitudinal sections of the conductor can be calculated by the formula: g "k \u003d 10 / (2n). (6)

As for the quantized longitudinal coordinates of the midpoints of the "hot" internal longitudinal sections, the distances between them and the midpoints of the "hot" extreme longitudinal sections with coordinates according to (6) are determined from the following expression:

g „b \u003d 10 / p. (7)

From (6) and (7) it follows that the centers of the EWF and the "hot" longitudinal sections of the conductor under study clearly correspond to the amplitudes of the quantized wave functions yn r(r,/) or quantized de Broglie electronic half-waves of length Xe n/2, determined by ( 4). In this case, for the edge zones of the considered conductor with current, the relation will be fulfilled:

^enr /2= ^nr + 2 ^nxk = 10 /n. (eight)

For the internal zones of the conductor with current i0(t), the quantized relation of the form will be true:

^enr /2= ^nr + ^nxv = 10/n. (nine)

For the calculation determination of the width Δm of the "hot" extreme and internal longitudinal sections included in (8) and (9), we use the fundamental Heisenberg uncertainty relation in quantum physics (wave mechanics). Then for the minimum value of the width Arsh we get:

&„r \u003d e0 „e0^ (te^0w) 1 -1, (10)

where 50m is the amplitude of the average current density d) flowing in the conductor (in the first approximation, s0m = 10m/£0); 10m is the amplitude of the current ^(/) of the conductor.

Taking into account (8) and (10), for the calculated value of the quantized width Ar^, "cold" extreme longitudinal sections of the conductor with current i0(t), we have: -one]. (eleven)

From (9) and (10) for the quantized width of the "cold" internal longitudinal sections of the considered conductor with current i0(t) we obtain:

^nxv = 10/n e0ne0^ (me^0m) . (12)

It is known from atomic physics that the value of the initial density ne0 of free electrons in the metal of the conductor, included in (10)-(12), is equal to the concentration of its atoms N0, multiplied by its valency, determined by the number of unpaired electrons on the outer (valence) electron layers of the atoms of the material conductor (for example, for copper, zinc and iron, the valency is two). The calculated value of the concentration N (m-3) of atoms in the metal of the conductor with a mass density ё0 before the pulsed current ^(/) flows through it is determined by the formula:

W0 \u003d W? 0 (Ma -1.6606-10-27) -1, (13)

where Ma is the atomic mass of the conductor material, which is included in the data of the periodic system of chemical elements of D.I. Mendeleev and practically equal to the mass number of the conductor metal atom nucleus (one atomic mass unit is equal to 1.6606-10-27 kg).

3. APPROXIMATE SOLUTION FOR THE WAVE RADIAL DISTRIBUTION OF FREE

ELECTRONS IN A CONDUCTOR WITH CURRENT

For an approximate description of the behavior of nonrelativistic drifting free electrons moving in a probabilistic way, including along the current radial coordinate r to the outer surface of a metal conductor with a pulsed axial current ^(()), we use the analytical solution previously obtained by the author of the corresponding one-dimensional temporal Schrödinger wave equation, which has the following form: y "r (r, /) \u003d ^0r ■ yn (k" rG) ■ exp (-g "Yue" rO, (14)

where L0g \u003d (k / 0g0g) -1/2 is the amplitude of its own radial

wave function yn r(r,/); knr=np/r0 is the quantized radial wave number; yuepz=n2k/(4r02) - quantized circular frequency of the natural radial wave function ynr(r,/); n=1,2,3,...,nm is an integer quantum number equal to the mode number of the eigenradial psi-wave function yn(r,/).

According to the calculation estimate of the quantized radial velocities uepg = ue „Depg / l of drifting electrons, where %eng = k / (teuepg) is the quantized length of the radial wave (de Broglie plane wave) for a free electron, we can use the relation:

Vepg \u003d „k / (2m eP)). (fifteen)

Taking into account (14) and the fact that kpg = 2%/Xepg, we can write the following quantum mechanical relation for the radial wave psi-functions and de Broglie electronic half-waves in the conductor under study:

"Xeng /2= r0. (sixteen)

Therefore, on the basis of (16), similarly to (4), the quantization rule II for the radial wave functions Vnr(r,/) in the conductor under study with a pulsed axial current i0(f) should be formulated in the following form: at the radius r0 of a metallic conductor with an electric current / 0(/) of various types and ATP must fit the integer quantum number n of de Broglie plane electron half-waves of length Xeng/2.

In connection with the coherence of plane radial electron (de Broglie) half-waves of length Xen/2, they, like longitudinal electron de Broglie half-waves of length Xen/2 in the crystal microstructure of the conductor, as a result of superposition or interference (mutual superposition) will form along the outer radius r0 of the conductor VEP. The process of formation along the radius r0 of these EWPs ("hot" radial sections) will be of a periodic nature, the radial step of which over the length Xeng/2 for the central and outer zones of the conductor, similarly to (8), can be represented in the following form:

Xenr /2= ^rnr +2 ^rnxk = r0 /n, (17)

where Аг„г, Агпхк - respectively, the width of the relatively "hot" and "cold" extreme radial sections of the conductor with a pulsed axial current i0(t).

For internal conductive bands of the conductor, the formation periodization step considered by us along the EWP radius r0 can be written as:

Xenr /2= ^rnr + ^rnxv = r0 /n, (18)

where Agh is the width of the "cold" inner radial sections of the conductor with pulsed current i0(t).

For the calculated determination in (17) and (18) of the value of Arng, we use the Heisenberg uncertainty relation as applied to drifting free electrons localized on the "hot" radial sections (HEP) of the conductor in the form:

where Arpz=teuepg=nk/(2r0) is the quantized radial projection of the momentum of free electrons drifting in the crystalline microstructure of the conductor.

Then, on the basis of (19) for the quantized minimum width Агпг of "hot" radial sections or the width of the quantized radial HEP of a metal conductor with a pulsed axial current i0(t) in the accepted electrophysical approximation

we obtain the following calculation expression:

Arnz = r0 /(2lp) . (20)

From (20) it can be seen that the width Arns of the "hot" radial sections or the width of the radial EWP of the conductor is at least (for n=1) 2n times less than its outer radius r0. Incidentally, the same mathematical dependence is also characteristic of the quantized width Azns of "hot" longitudinal sections with respect to the length l0 of the conductor with current i0(t).

Using (17) and (20), for the quantized maximum width Агтк of the "cold" extreme radial sections of the investigated conductor, we find:

bggzhk \u003d (2n - 1)G0 / (4lp) . (21)

From (18) and (20) for the quantized maximum width Arms of the "cold" inner radial sections of the investigated conductor with current i0(t) we obtain: Arnx6 = (2^ - 1)p /(2th?). (22)

From relations (20) - (22) it follows that the "cold" inner radial sections of a metal conductor with electric current are exactly twice as wide as the "cold" extreme radial sections and (2n-1) ~ 5.3 times more ( wider) of its "hot" radial sections. By analogy with (6), the radial coordinates of the midpoints of the widths Arsh of the "hot" extreme radial sections of the conductor are equal to:

rnk = Ge/(2n). (23)

The distance between the midpoints of the widths of the "hot" inner and outermost radial sections of the conductor will be determined by the quantum relation:

rnb = r0/n. (24)

For the "hot" and "cold" radial sections of the investigated metal conductor, as well as for the longitudinal sections corresponding to them by name and considered a little higher, the following characteristic electrophysical feature will also be fulfilled: the density of both drifting free electrons and the density of thermal energy on " hot" radial sections or radial WEP of a metal conductor will be noticeably higher than in its "cold" radial sections.

The expressions (20)-(24) given above, taking into account the markedly different temperatures relative to the "hot" and "cold" radial sections, unambiguously indicate the possibility of radial stratification of conductive plasma products formed from a round cylindrical metal conductor during the phenomenon of its electric explosion (EE). It should be noted that the effect of radial stratification of a "metallic" plasma is just real and is observed in the EE of even thin metal wires. In addition, the approximate calculated data obtained according to expressions (4)-(12) and (16)-(24) can indicate that the radial fractions of the specified plasma arising from the EE of round metal wires will be approximately l0/r0 times less than its longitudinal fractions.

4. THE PHENOMENON OF QUANTIZED PERIODIC MACROLOCALIZATION OF FREE ELECTRONS IN A CONDUCTOR WITH A CURRENT Calculated estimate from (10) of the width Azns of the "hot" extreme and inner longitudinal sections of the metal

0(0) shows that for a copper wire (ne0 = 16.86-1028 m3) at a current density of 50t = 2 A / mm2, characteristic of AC networks with a frequency of 50 Hz, the value takes on a value equal to near

1.06 m. At 50t \u003d 200 A / mm2, which is characteristic of high-current high-voltage pulse technology, the considered width becomes equal to about 10.6 mm. From these quantitative data presented by us, it becomes clear that it is possible to experimentally reveal the manifestation of the wave properties of drifting free electrons in metallic conductors by explicitly detecting in them the places of formation of macroscopic EWPs and, accordingly, “hot” extreme and internal longitudinal sections, as well as the “cold” ones that appear against their background. "extreme and internal longitudinal sections. It also becomes clear that for such a detection in laboratory conditions of quantized values ​​Аіпг, Аіпхк and Аіпхв, respectively, for "hot" and "cold" longitudinal sections of the conductor, it is necessary to use powerful high-voltage electrical equipment capable of generating relatively large pulse currents in an electrical circuit with a metal conductor under study. . Moreover, such currents, the flow of which through a metal conductor would cause intense heating of its material and especially the conductive crystal structure in the zone of its quantized EWP.

The theoretical results presented above in sections 2 and 3 indicate the processes of periodic macrolocalization of drifting free electrons in the zones of longitudinal and radial EWPs of the conductor under study with a pulsed axial current i0(/). Characteristic for this electronic macrolocalization is that it is quantized, mathematically determined according to expressions (3) and (14) by the value of the quantum number n, and physically - by the energy state of free electrons that find themselves in the microstructure of the conductor material at the moment the electric voltage is applied to it and the beginning of the flow of electric current of one kind or another through it. Therefore, the value of the quantum number n for the longitudinal yng(r, f) and radial \yng(r, t) wave functions, as well as for plane longitudinal and radial de Broglie half-waves of length Xrng/2 and Xrng/2 in the microstructure of a metallic wire with a pulsed current i0(/) will have a probabilistic (stochastic) character. It is obvious for the author that practically the numerical value of the quantum number n will always be equal to the number of macroscopic "hot" longitudinal sections (HEP) of width Аіпг, periodically formed along the considered metal conductor of length 10 with axial current i0(ґ).

5. RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS OF THE WAVE LONGITUDINAL DISTRIBUTION OF FREE ELECTRONS AND FEATURES OF THE TEMPERATURE FIELD IN A CONDUCTOR WITH A PULSE CURRENT

To carry out an experimental verification of the calculated results presented in Sections 2 and 3, the quantum

The simplest, most reliable and, accordingly, most expedient way can be an experimental study of the longitudinal wave distribution of these electrons in it. In the experiments, we use a round galvanized (with protective coating thickness A0 = 5 μm) steel wire rigidly fixed in the discharge circuit of the high-voltage pulse current generator GIT-5S, having the following geometric characteristics (Fig. 2): r0 = 0.8 mm; /0=320 mm; 50>=2.01 mm2. The discharge of the capacitor bank of the GIT-5C generator, pre-charged to a constant charging voltage U3G = -3.7 kV, with a capacity of C/=45.36 mF (with stored electric energy ^/=310 kJ), ensured the flow of an aperiodic current pulse i0( /), characterized by the following WUAs: amplitude /0m=-745 A; time form /t/tr=9 ms/576 ms, where t is the time corresponding to the current amplitude of 10t, and tr is the total duration of the current pulse; modulus of average density of impulse current equal to |50t|=0.37 kA/mm2.

Rice. 2. General view of a round rectilinear galvanized steel wire (r0=0.8 mm; /0=320 mm; D0=5 μm; S0=2.01 mm2) placed in the air above the heat-shielding asbestos sheet, before flowing through it in the discharge high-voltage generator GIT-5S circuit of aperiodic pulse of axial current r "0 (/) of high density

On fig. Figure 3 shows the results of one of the effects of the indicated aperiodic pulse of the axial current with a time shape of 9 ms/576 ms on the metal wire used in the experiments.

Rice. Fig. 3. Appearance of the thermal state of a galvanized steel wire (r0=0.8 mm; /0=320 mm; A0=5 μm; S0=2.01 mm2) with one "hot" (VEP zone with width Аіпг=7 mm in the middle of the wire ) and one "cold" extreme left (width Аітк=156.5 mm; the second "cold" extreme right section underwent partial sublimation) longitudinal sections after the flow of an aperiodic current pulse i0(ґ) of the time form 9 ms/576 ms of high density through it (/0t=-745 A; |50t|=0.37 kA/mm2; n=1)

From the data in Fig. 3 it follows that on the length /0=320 mm of a galvanized steel wire intensively heated by a unipolar pulsed current (|50m|=0.37 kA/mm2) (for its steel base according to (13)

„eo=2Ao=16.82-1028 m~3) in the case under study there is one "hot" longitudinal section (one brightly glowing swollen spherical EWP zone in the middle of the wire, clearly indicating that n=1) with a width 7 mm (with its estimated width according to (10) of 5.7 mm) and two extreme "cold" longitudinal sections (cylindrical isthmuses along both edges of the wire, one of which has undergone partial sublimation) with a width of Dgnkhk = 156.5 mm (with their design width according to (11) at 157.1 mm). Metallographic studies of the VEP spherical zone cooled down in the middle of the wire showed that it contains hardened fractions of the boiled (swollen) zinc coating (at the boiling point for zinc of 907 ° C) and the molten steel base of the wire (at its melting temperature of approximately 1535 ° C). This high temperature level in the spherical zone of the VEP (on the only "hot" longitudinal section of the wire) is evidenced by its white color of incandescence (at least 1200 ° C) and the burns found under it of a heat-shielding coating of chrysotile asbestos 3 mm thick with a melting point of approximately 1500 °C. On the basis of the experimental data obtained in this case (n=1) and the calculated quantum-physical estimates made for it, it can be concluded that in the crystal microstructure of the galvanized steel wire there is a superposition of quantized longitudinal wave functions ^w(2, () , whose modes are characterized by one quantum number n = 1. As a result of the existence of such modes of psi-functions in the wire, on its length /0 = 320 mm only one electron de Broglie half-wave fits, for which the equality coordinate according to (6) rnk=160 mm), only one VEP or one "hot" longitudinal section is formed with a width of about Dznr=7 mm.

On fig. Figure 4 shows the experimental results of another exposure to a galvanized steel wire (r0=0.8 mm; /0=320 mm; D0=5 μm; 50>=2.01 mm2) of a unipolar axial current pulse /0(/) of time form /t /tr=9 ms/576 ms of high density (/0t=-745 A; |50t|=0.37 kA/mm2; P3G=-3.7 kV; ZhG=310 kJ). It can be seen that in this experimental case, along the intensely heated steel wire (to cover it ne0=2L/0=13.08-1028 m_3), four VEPs or four "hot" ones are already placed (experimental width Dg "g = 7 mm with their calculated by (10) width in

5.7 mm) and two internal "cold" (experimental width Dg "xv \u003d 26.9 mm with their calculated (12) width for n \u003d 9 in 29.9 mm) longitudinal sections. It should be noted that here five "hot", two extreme and six internal "cold" longitudinal sections of the investigated wire underwent complete sublimation. The presence in this experimental case on the tested steel wire of high-temperature EWP zones also with a width of Dgng = 7 mm may indicate the reliability of the calculation formula (10).

According to (6), the longitudinal coordinates rk of the "cold" extreme longitudinal sections in this case amounted to about 2nk = 320 mm / 18 = 17.8 mm, and the calculated coordinates 2nb according to (7) for the "hot" longitudinal sections will be approximately equal to 35.6 mm. The value of n-2 "sh should-

in the case under consideration (n=9) approach the length /0=320 mm of the investigated steel wire. It can be seen from the obtained calculated and experimental data that such a geometric condition is satisfied. The results of the latest experiment also clearly show that periodic macrolocalization of drifting free electrons takes place in the steel wire under study, which causes the appearance of an inhomogeneous periodic longitudinal temperature field in its conducting macrostructure. The experimental step of the longitudinal quantized periodization of such a thermal field in the specified steel wire turned out to be approximately equal to (Dgnxv + Dgng) = 31.6 mm and slightly smaller than the calculated step corresponding to relations (8) and (9), which is about /0/n =35.6 mm.

Rice. 4. Appearance of the desktop generator GIT-5C

and thermal state of a galvanized steel wire (r0=0.8 mm; /0=320 mm; D0=5 µm; S0=2.01 mm2) with four "hot" (VEP zones with width Dg = 7 mm) and two "cold "internal (width D2ga = 16.9 mm) longitudinal sections after the next exposure to it of an aperiodic current pulse r0 (/) of the time form 9 ms / 576 ms of high density (/ 0t = -745 A; | 50t | = 0.37 kA /mm2; „=9; the remaining five "hot" and eight "cold" longitudinal sections of the studied galvanized steel wire underwent complete sublimation)

6. BASIC PROPERTIES AND SIGNS OF THE QUANTUM-WAVE NATURE OF ELECTRIC CURRENT IN A METAL CONDUCTOR

1. The subordination of the electrophysical processes accompanying the flow of an electric conduction current in metal conductors to the fundamental scientific provisions of both classical physics and nonrelativistic quantum physics (wave mechanics) as applied to its carriers of electricity - drifting free electrons. In accordance with these classical provisions, these electrons have wave properties, which, as shown above, in metal conductors with electric direct, alternating or pulsed current of various densities 50 can have a significant effect on the macroscopic processes of formation and spatial distribution occurring in them in their homogeneous material. conduction current /0(/). Due to the fulfillment of these physical laws, the electromagnetic energy transferred in the crystalline microstructure of the investigated conductors by drifting free electrons is represented by the corresponding quanta (portions) with a certain length of the electron wave (half-wave), and the behavior of the considered electro-

new in the material of metallic conductors and their spatio-temporal distributions are described by the corresponding quantized wave y n-functions (for example,

2. The presence in the internal crystalline microstructure of the material of the investigated metal conductor with an electric current of various types of quantized de Broglie electronic half-waves propagating along its longitudinal z and radial z coordinates. The existence of these plane de Broglie electronic half-waves in the conductor material follows from the calculated relations (4) and (16). For the applied case of a longitudinal wave distribution in a round galvanized steel wire (r0=0.8 mm; /0=320 mm) of an aperiodic high-density axial current pulse (50m=370 A/mm2), the existence of these de Broglie electronic half-waves was confirmed by the author experimentally on the basis of the results of high-temperature experiments performed, given in .

3. Manifestation in the material of the investigated metal conductor with an electric current of the effect of superposition (interference) of quantized de Broglie electronic half-waves, leading to the periodic occurrence along the longitudinal r and radial r coordinates of the conductor of quantized macroscopic EWP. These HEP, in turn, give rise to relatively "hot" and "cold" longitudinal and radial sections of macroscopic dimensions in the conductor material. The spatial step of the periodization of the longitudinal and radial EWP of the conductor according to relations (8), (9), (17) and (18) is equal to the corresponding quantized lengths Xe r / 2 and Xe r / 2 of electronic half-waves.

4. The occurrence in the conducting structure of the investigated metal conductor with electric current /0(/) in the zones of the above longitudinal and radial EWPs of the phenomenon of quantized periodic macrolocalization of drifting free electrons, characterized by a noticeable difference in the densities of drifting free electrons, thermal energy densities and, accordingly, temperatures on relatively hot "and" cold "longitudinal and radial sections of the conductor under consideration. This phenomenon leads to the appearance in the material of a metal conductor with an electric current of inhomogeneous periodic longitudinal and radial temperature fields, which can actually be recorded and investigated.

1. The data obtained indicate that in a rectilinear homogeneous round metal conductor with an electric axial current, due to the wave properties of free electrons drifting in it, causing the existence in its internal microscopic structure of de Broglie electronic half-waves quantized in a certain way, and superposition processes (mutual overlay) data of de Broglie electronic half-waves over the entire conducting volume of the conductor, periodic formation of quantized longitudinal and radial EWPs of macroscopic dimensions occurs. The WEPs that arise in this case are characterized

densities of drifting free electrons and correspondingly increased values ​​of thermal energy and temperature densities on them. Such a longitudinal and radial redistribution in the volume of the conductor of these carriers of electricity leads to the appearance in its macrostructure of an inhomogeneous periodic temperature field.

2. The presented results of theoretical and experimental studies of wave electrophysical processes accompanying the flow of electric conduction current of various types (constant, variable or pulsed) in the considered metal conductor unambiguously indicate that in the internal crystal structure of the investigated conductor, due to the wave nature of the longitudinal and radial distributions in it of drifting electrons arises

the phenomenon of quantized periodic macrolocalization of free electrons. The degree and nature of the manifestation of this quantum physical phenomenon along the length and radius of a metal conductor with a current і0(ґ) of various ATPs is determined by the density of the electric current in it and the energy state of its free electrons at the moment the electric voltage is applied to the conductor and, accordingly, the conduction current begins to flow through it.

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2007, no.1, pp. 13-19. 13. Baranov M.I. Evristicheskoe opredelenie maksimal "nogo chisla jelektronnyh poluvoln de Brojlja v metal-licheskom provodnike s elektricheskim tokom provodimosti. Elektrotekhnika i elektromekhanika - Electrical engineering & electromechanics, 2007, no.6, pp. 59-62. 14. Baranov M.I. nika s elektricheskim tokom provodimosti . Elektrotekhnika i elek-tromekhanika - Electrical engineering & electromechanics, 2006, no.3, pp. 49-53. 1З. Baranov M.I. Osnovnye harakteristiki verojatnostnogo raspredelenija svobodnyh elektronov v provodnike s elektricheskim tokom provodimosti . Tekhnichna elektrodynamika - Technical electrodynamics, 2008, no.1, pp. 8-12 16. Baranov M.I. Kvantovomehanicheskij podhod pri raschete temperatury nagreva provodnika elektricheskim tokom provodimosti. M.I. Teoreticheskie i eksperimental "nye rezul" taty issledovanij po obosno-vaniju sushhestvovanija v mikrostruktu re metallicheskogo provodnika s tokom elektronnyh debrojlevskih poluvoln . Elektrotekhnika i elektromekhanika - Electrical engineering & electromechanics, 2014, no.3, pp. 45-49. 18. Baranov M.I. Volnovoe radial "noe raspredelenie svobodnyh elektronov v cilindricheskom provodnike s peremennym elektricheskim tokom. Tekhnichna elektrodynamika - Technical electrodynamics, 2009, no.1, pp. 6-11. 19. Stolovich N.N. Elektrovzryvnye preobrazovateli energgii. 151 p. 20. Elektrotehnicheskij spravochnik, Proizvodstvo i raspredelenie elek-tricheskoj energii, Tom Z, Kniga I. Moscow, Energoatomizdat Publ., 1988. 880 p. tronnyh poluvoln v metallicheskom provodnike s impul "snym tokom bol" shoj plotnosti. Visnyk NTU "KhPI" - Bulletin of NTU "KhPI", 2013, no.60 (1033), pp. 3-12. 22. Baranov M.I., Koliushko G.M., Kravchenko V.I., Nedzelskyi O.S., Dnyschenko V.N. Generator toka iskusstvennoj molnii dlja naturyh ispy-tanij tehnicheskih ob’ektov. Pribory i tekhnika eksperimenta - Instruments and experimental techniques, 2008, no.3, pp. 81-85. 23. Belorussov N.I., Saakjan A.E., Jakovleva A.I. Elektricheskie kabeli, provoda i shnury: Spra-vochnik. Moscow, Energoatomizdat Publ., 1988. 536 p.

Received 02/05/2014

Baranov Mikhail Ivanovich, Doctor of Technical Sciences, Senior Researcher,

NIPKI "Lightning" NTU "KhPI",

61013, Kharkiv, st. Shevchenko, 47

tel/phone +38 057 7076841, e-mail: [email protected]

Scientific-&-Research Planning-&-Design Institute "Molniya"

National Technical University "Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute"

47, Shevchenko Str., Kharkiv, 61013, Ukraine Quantum-wave nature of electric current in a metallic conductor and some of its electrophysical macro-phenomena.

The paper presents results of theoretical and experimental research on wave longitudinal and radial distribution of drifting free electrons in a round homogeneous metallic conductor with a pulse axial current. The studies reveal quantum-wave character of electric conduction current flow in the conductor examined, which results in a phenomenon of quantized periodic macrolocalization of free electrons in the conductor inner structure.

Key words - metallic conductor, electric current, drifting free electrons, electronic half-waves, phenomenon of macro-localization of electrons.

Now we have everything we need to answer the question: what is an electric current? Electric current is the movement of electric charges. It has been established by precise experiments that any moving electric charge produces the same magnetic effect as an electric current. In various conductors, the current is created by the movement of various charged particles. Electric current in metals. Metal atoms have the ability to easily donate one or more electrons. There are almost no neutral atoms in any piece of metal, but there are positive ions and electrons torn off from atoms, which are called free. Free electrons randomly move in the space between the ions with different, but very high speeds.

For a short time, they can be attracted by some ion, then they are separated from it again, etc. When the metal is heated, the speed of the random movement of free electrons increases. If a metal conductor is attached to the poles of a current source, then the electric field that exists between the poles of the source will penetrate the conductor; all free electrons present in the conductor will be affected by electrical forces: the electrons will repel from the negative pole and be attracted to the positive. As a result, free electrons, continuing their random movement, will slowly move in one direction along the conductor. Such a movement is called ordered.

Electricity- ordered uncompensated movement of free electrically charged particles, for example, under the influence of an electric field.

The current strength is a physical quantity equal to the ratio of the amount of charge that has passed through the cross section of the conductor in some time to the value of this time interval.

Current in the SI system is measured in amperes.

According to Ohm's law, the current I for a section of the circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage U to the circuit section and is inversely proportional to the resistance R conductor of this section of the circuit:

D.C, an electric current whose parameters, properties, and direction do not change (in various senses) with time.

The simplest direct current source is a chemical source (galvanic cell or battery), since the polarity of such a source cannot spontaneously change.

3) Electrostatic potential scalar energy characteristic of an electrostatic field, which characterizes the potential energy of the field, which is possessed by a unit charge placed at a given point in the field. The unit of potential is the unit of work divided by the unit of charge.

The electrostatic potential is equal to the ratio of the potential energy of the interaction of the charge with the field to the value of this charge:

In SI, the unit of potential difference is the volt (V).

The measure of energy change during the interactions of bodies is work. When moving an electric charge q Job BUT forces of the electrostatic field is equal to the change in the potential energy of the charge, taken with the opposite sign, so we get

Since the work of the forces of the electrostatic field when moving a charge from one point in space to another does not depend on the trajectory of the charge between these points, the potential difference between the two points of the electric field is a quantity that does not depend on the trajectory of the charge. The potential difference, therefore, can serve as an energy characteristic of the electrostatic field.

Voltage- the difference between the values ​​of the potential at the initial and final points of the trajectory.

Voltage numerically equal to the work of the electrostatic field when moving a unit positive charge along the lines of force of this field.

Potential difference (voltage) does not depend on the choice

coordinate systems!

Electrical voltage between points A and B electric circuit or electric field - a physical quantity, the value of which is equal to the ratio of the work of the electric field performed when transferring a test electric charge from a point A exactly B, to the value of the trial charge.

4)) DC electrical circuit. Elements of an electrical circuit. Linear and non-linear electrical circuits. Branched and unbranched DC electrical circuit. Elements of the electrical circuit: branch, circuit, node.

electrical circuit called a set of devices and objects that form a path for electric current, electromagnetic processes in which can be described using the concepts of electric current, EMF (electromotive force) and electric voltage.

All devices and objects that make up the electrical circuit can be divided into three groups:

1) Sources of electrical energy (power).

A common property of all power sources is the conversion of some form of energy into electrical energy. Sources in which non-electrical energy is converted into electrical energy are called primary sources. Secondary sources are those sources that have electrical energy both at the input and at the output (for example, rectifier devices).

2) Consumers of electrical energy.

A common property of all consumers is the conversion of electricity into other types of energy (for example, a heating device). Sometimes consumers call the load.

3) Auxiliary elements of the circuit: connecting wires, switching equipment, protection equipment, measuring instruments, etc., without which the real circuit does not work.

All elements of the circuit are covered by one electromagnetic process.

Linear and non-linear electrical circuits- The image of an electrical circuit using conventional signs is called an electrical circuit (Fig. 2.1, a). The dependence of the current flowing through the resistance on the voltage across this resistance is called the current-voltage characteristic (CVC). Voltage is usually plotted along the abscissa on the graph, and current is plotted along the ordinate. Resistances whose I–V characteristics are straight lines (Fig. 2.1, b) are called linear, electrical circuits with only linear resistances are called linear electrical circuits. Resistances whose I–V characteristics are not straight lines (Fig. 2.1, c), that is, they are nonlinear, are called nonlinear, and electrical circuits with non-linear resistances are called non-linear electrical circuits.

Examples of linear (usually to a very good approximation) circuits are circuits containing only resistors, capacitors, and inductors. Also, as linear in certain ranges, circuits containing linear amplifiers and some other electronic devices containing active elements, but having sufficiently linear characteristics in certain ranges, can be considered.

Electrical circuits are divided into unbranched and branched. Figure 1 shows a diagram of the simplest unbranched circuit. The same current flows in all its elements. The simplest branched chain is shown in Figure 2. It has three branches and two nodes. Each branch has its own current. A branch can be defined as a section of a circuit formed by elements connected in series (through which the same current flows) and enclosed between two nodes. In turn, a node is a chain point at which at least three branches converge. If a dot is placed at the intersection of two lines on the electrical circuit (Figure 2), then there is an electrical connection of the two lines at this place, otherwise it is not. A node at which two branches converge, one of which is a continuation of the other, is called a removable or degenerate node.

Electrical circuit elements are sources of electrical energy, active and reactive resistances

To describe the topological properties of an electrical circuit, topological concepts are used, the main of which are a node, a branch, and a circuit.

Knot- an electrical circuit is a place (point) of connection of three or more elements.

branch- call the set of connected elements of the electrical circuit between two nodes.

A branch, by definition, contains elements, so vertical links are not branches. A diagonal connection is not a branch either.

contour - (closed loop) is a set of branches that form a path, when moving along which we can return to the starting point without passing more than once through each branch and through each node.

By definition, the various circuits of an electrical circuit must differ from each other by at least one branch.

The number of circuits that can be formed for a given electrical circuit is limited and defined.

5) Sources of electrical energy in the DC circuit

In linear electrical circuits, as energy sources, there are sources of E.D.S. and current sources.

The ideal source of E.D.S. has an unchanged E.D.S. and voltage at the output terminals at all load currents. At a real source - E.D.S. and the voltage at the terminals change when the load changes (for example, due to a voltage drop in the generator windings). In the electrical circuit, this is taken into account by connecting the resistor r 0 in series. The ideal voltage source is shown in fig. 1.3.

The voltage U ab depends on the current of the receiver and is equal to the difference between the E.D.S. generator and the voltage drop across its internal resistance r 0:

. The current flowing through the circuit also depends on the load resistance:

If we accept the E.D.S. source, its internal resistance and the resistance of the receiver are independent of current and voltage, then the external characteristic of the energy source U 12 \u003d f (I) and the CVC of the receiver U ab \u003d f (I) will be linear (Fig. 1.4).

According to fig. 1.4 it can be seen that as the current in the circuit increases, the voltage at the load increases, and, consequently, the voltage at the output terminals of the source decreases.

The current source is characterized by infinite internal resistance and infinite value of EMF, while the equality is fulfilled:

If r 0 >>R H and I 0<ideal current source

Classical science defines electric current as an ordered movement of charged particles (electrons, ions) or charged macroscopic bodies. For the direction of the electric current, it was agreed to take the direction of movement of the positive charges that form this current. If the current is formed by negative charges (for example, electrified), then the direction of the electric current is considered to be opposite to the direction of movement of these charges. Ho, and if the charge of the body is determined by the density of ephytons in the ethereal field and the degree of their orientation, then what then should the electric current be?
The answer may be the following: a directed translational movement of ethereal particles oriented in a certain way - ephytons.
Such a definition of electric current will cause most scientists, and not only them, the most unflattering statements, although it does not

contradicts the results of experiments on which the classical definition of electric current is based.
The statements of classical science that the electric current, for example, in metals is due to the directed movement of electrons, is based on the results of the following experiments.
K. Rikke's experience. A chain was taken, consisting of three cylinders connected in series: copper, aluminum and again copper. A constant electric current was passed through this circuit for a long time (about a year), but no traces of the transfer of a substance (copper or aluminum) were found. From this it was concluded that charge carriers in metals are particles common to all metals, which are not associated with the difference in their physical and chemical properties.
Experience of Stewart and Tolman (1916). A wire was wound around the coil, the ends of which were connected to a fixed ballistic galvanometer. The coil was brought into rapid rotational motion, and then sharply braked. When the coil is braked, a current pulse passes through the galvanometer, the appearance of which is associated with the inertia of free charge carriers in the coil conductor. It was found that current carriers in metals are negatively charged. The specific charge of current carriers was determined by the formula:

where: I - conductor length;
V - speed of rotational movement;
R is the total resistance of the circuit;
q is the amount of electricity flowing during the manifestation
impulse.
It turned out to be close to the specific charge of an electron, equal to 1.76-1011 C/kg. Thus, according to researchers, current carriers in metals are electrons.
The results of the first experiment indicate that the charge carriers are particles common to all materials. These conclusions are also consistent with the ethereal nature of the electric current, since ephytons are universal particles from which all physical matter is built.
The conclusions based on the results of the second experiment, based on the assertion that the change in the momentum of the conductor is equal to the momentum of the deceleration force of the charge carriers, do not seem to be entirely correct.
rectal, because the charge carriers in the conductor are not independent balls, but particles that experience Coulomb interaction from the atoms surrounding them and the same particles. And the conclusion that the specific charge of current carriers turned out to be close to the specific charge of an electron does not contradict the ethereal nature of the electric current. Each ephyton has a mass, which is thousands of times less than the mass of an electron, and a charge. And since electrons consist of ephytons, their specific charge should be close to the specific charge of electrons.
Thus, the results of the experiments, on which the conclusions of classical science about the nature of current carriers in metals are based, do not contradict the ethereal nature of the electric current.
Let's consider another experiment. Take a conductor, for example, one kilometer long. In the middle of this conductor we will connect an electric light bulb. We isolate the conductor from the external electric field ”With the help of a knife switch, we close both ends of the wire to a current source. How long will it take for the light to turn on? Each of us, even without conducting this experiment, will answer: almost instantly. Ho if the current is a directional movement of electrons (at a speed of tenths of a centimeter per second), then what force makes them almost instantly carry out directional movement along the entire length of the conductor? Science claims that the electric is ible, which propagates at the speed of light. The Ho conductor was isolated from the external electric field.
There remains an electric field inside the conductor. Ho what does it represent? The question remains unanswered. And if the current is a directed movement of ephytons, then everything falls into place. Their orientation in the direction of the current occurs at a speed close to the speed of light.
Further. Let's imagine the following electric circuit: we will connect, for example, heating and lighting devices to the current generator. Let us make the generator rotor continuously rotate for an hour, a day, a month, a year, etc. Heaters will radiate heat, and lighting fixtures will radiate light.
If the current is a directed movement of electrons, then, passing through heating and lighting devices, they must emit quanta of radiant energy, and, passing through the turns of the generator rotor, receive energy quanta. After all, heat and light are electromagnetic waves (respectively, infrared AND light ranges), i.e. waves of the ethereal field. According to the law of conservation of energy, equality must be observed between the energy radiated into space and the energy received. So where does this energy come from? According to modern
representations, in this case, the conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy occurs when the rotor turns intersect the magnetic field of the stator. All right, but what is the mechanism of this transformation?
The modern theory of the electronic mechanism of the emergence of the electromotive force of induction says only that the charges in the conductor (electrons) moving in a magnetic field are affected by the Lorentz force, which causes the movement of free charges (electrons) in this conductor in such a way that its ends form excess charges of the opposite sign. However, this theory does not answer the question of how and by what means the energy level of electrons in an electrical circuit is increased when they emit radiant energy.
As can be seen from these examples, the modern understanding of the nature of electric current remained practically at the level of 1831, when M. Faraday discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction. If the electric current is a directed movement of ephytons, then the process of obtaining energy when the turns of the rotor intersect the magnetic field of the stator is as follows. Under the influence of a constant magnetic field of the stator in the turns of the rotor, a strict orientation of the ephytons in the conductor (coil) occurs in such a way that if the conductor crosses from left to right the magnetic lines of force going up, then the electric component of the ephytons will be directed along the conductor towards the observer, and the magnetic component - along tangent to the surface of the conductor. In this case, the familiar mnemonic gimlet rule will be fulfilled by all of us. When crossing the magnetic field lines, the conductor "captures" the ephytons from these lines of force of the stator magnetic field. The higher the speed of crossing the magnetic field lines by the conductor and the closer the angle between the conductor and the direction of the magnetic field to the right angle, the more the ephytons are "captured" by the conductor. There is an addition of mutually perpendicular oscillations of the ether fields of the conductor and the stator. If the periods of the terms of the oscillations of the ethereal fields coincide, the trajectory of the movement of the ethereals in the resulting oscillation will pass along a certain straight line directed along the conductor.
For a more complete explanation of the electrical and magnetic phenomena on the basis of a hypothetical model of the ethereal field, the development of a fundamental theory of such a field is required.

What do we really know about electricity today? According to modern views, a lot, but if we delve into the essence of this issue in more detail, it turns out that humanity widely uses electricity without understanding the true nature of this important physical phenomenon.

The purpose of this article is not to refute the achieved scientific and technical applied research results in the field of electrical phenomena, which are widely used in the everyday life and industry of modern society. But mankind is constantly faced with a number of phenomena and paradoxes that do not fit into the framework of modern theoretical ideas regarding electrical phenomena - this indicates a lack of a complete understanding of the physics of this phenomenon.

Also, today science knows the facts when, it would seem, the studied substances and materials exhibit anomalous conductivity properties ( ) .

Such a phenomenon as the superconductivity of materials also does not have a completely satisfactory theory at present. There is only an assumption that superconductivity is quantum phenomenon , which is studied by quantum mechanics. A careful study of the basic equations of quantum mechanics: the Schrödinger equation, the von Neumann equation, the Lindblad equation, the Heisenberg equation and the Pauli equation, then their inconsistency becomes obvious. The fact is that the Schrödinger equation is not derived, but postulated by analogy with classical optics, based on the generalization of experimental data. The Pauli equation describes the motion of a charged particle with spin 1/2 (for example, an electron) in an external electromagnetic field, but the concept of spin is not related to the real rotation of an elementary particle, and it is also postulated relative to the spin that there is a space of states that is in no way connected with the movement of an elementary particles in ordinary space.

In the book of Anastasia Novykh "Ezoosmos" there is a mention of the failure of quantum theory: "But the quantum mechanical theory of the structure of the atom, which considers the atom as a system of microparticles that do not obey the laws of classical mechanics, absolutely irrelevant . At first glance, the arguments of the German physicist Heisenberg and the Austrian physicist Schrödinger seem convincing to people, but if all this is considered from a different point of view, then their conclusions are only partially correct, but in general, both are completely wrong. The fact is that the first described the electron as a particle, and the other as a wave. By the way, the principle of wave-particle duality is also irrelevant, since it does not reveal the transition of a particle into a wave and vice versa. That is, some kind of scanty is obtained from the learned gentlemen. In fact, everything is very simple. In general, I want to say that the physics of the future is very simple and understandable. The main thing is to live until this future. As for the electron, it becomes a wave only in two cases. The first is when the external charge is lost, that is, when the electron does not interact with other material objects, say with the same atom. The second one is in the pre-osmic state, that is, when its internal potential decreases.

The same electrical impulses generated by the neurons of the human nervous system support the active complex and diverse functioning of the body. It is interesting to note that the action potential of a cell (a wave of excitation moving along the membrane of a living cell in the form of a short-term change in the membrane potential in a small area of ​​the excitable cell) is in a certain range (Fig. 1).

The lower limit of the action potential of a neuron is at -75 mV, which is very close to the value of the redox potential of human blood. If we analyze the maximum and minimum value of the action potential relative to zero, then it is very close to the percentage rounded meaning golden ratio , i.e. division of the interval in relation to 62% and 38%:

\(\Delta = 75mV+40mV = 115mV\)

115 mV / 100% = 75 mV / x 1 or 115 mV / 100% = 40 mV / x 2

x 1 = 65.2%, x 2 = 34.8%

All substances and materials known to modern science conduct electricity to one degree or another, since they contain electrons consisting of 13 phantom Po particles, which, in turn, are septon clumps (“PRIMORDIAL ALLATRA PHYSICS”, p. 61) . The question is only the voltage of the electric current, which is necessary to overcome the electrical resistance.

Since electrical phenomena are closely related to the electron, the report "PRIMORDIAL ALLATRA PHYSICS" provides the following information regarding this important elementary particle: "The electron is an integral part of the atom, one of the main structural elements of matter. Electrons form the electron shells of atoms of all currently known chemical elements. They are involved in almost all electrical phenomena that scientists are now aware of. But what electricity really is, official science still cannot explain, limited to general phrases, that it is, for example, "a set of phenomena due to the existence, movement and interaction of charged bodies or particles of electric charge carriers." It is known that electricity is not a continuous flow, but is transferred in portions - discretely».

According to modern ideas: electricity - this is a set of phenomena due to the existence, interaction and movement of electric charges. But what is electric charge?

Electric charge (amount of electricity) is a physical scalar quantity (a quantity, each value of which can be expressed by one real number), which determines the ability of bodies to be a source of electromagnetic fields and take part in electromagnetic interaction. Electric charges are divided into positive and negative (this choice is considered purely conditional in science and a well-defined sign is assigned to each of the charges). Bodies charged with a charge of the same sign repel, and oppositely charged bodies attract. When charged bodies move (both macroscopic bodies and microscopic charged particles that carry electric current in conductors), a magnetic field arises and phenomena take place that make it possible to establish the relationship of electricity and magnetism (electromagnetism).

Electrodynamics studies the electromagnetic field in the most general case (that is, time-dependent variable fields are considered) and its interaction with bodies that have an electric charge. Classical electrodynamics takes into account only the continuous properties of the electromagnetic field.

quantum electrodynamics studies electromagnetic fields that have discontinuous (discrete) properties, the carriers of which are field quanta - photons. The interaction of electromagnetic radiation with charged particles is considered in quantum electrodynamics as the absorption and emission of photons by particles.

It is worth considering why a magnetic field appears around a conductor with current, or around an atom, along whose orbits electrons move? The fact is that " what today is called electricity is actually a special state of the septon field , in the processes of which the electron in most cases takes part on an equal basis with its other additional "components" ” (“PRIMARY ALLATRA PHYSICS”, p. 90) .

And the toroidal shape of the magnetic field is due to the nature of its origin. As the article says: “Given the fractal patterns in the Universe, as well as the fact that the septon field in the material world within 6 dimensions is the fundamental, unified field on which all interactions known to modern science are based, it can be argued that they all also have the form Torah. And this statement may be of particular scientific interest to modern researchers.. Therefore, the electromagnetic field will always take the form of a torus, like a septon torus.

Consider a spiral through which an electric current flows and how exactly its electromagnetic field is formed ( https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0BgV-ST478M).

Rice. 2. Field lines of a rectangular magnet

Rice. 3. Field lines of a spiral with current

Rice. 4. Field lines of individual sections of the spiral

Rice. 5. Analogy between the lines of force of a spiral and atoms with orbital electrons

Rice. 6. A separate fragment of a spiral and an atom with lines of force

CONCLUSION: mankind has yet to learn the secrets of the mysterious phenomenon of electricity.

Petr Totov

Keywords: PRIMORDIAL ALLATRA PHYSICS, electric current, electricity, nature of electricity, electric charge, electromagnetic field, quantum mechanics, electron.

Literature:

New. A., Ezoosmos, K.: LOTOS, 2013. - 312 p. http://schambala.com.ua/book/ezoosmos

Report "PRIMORDIAL ALLATRA PHYSICS" of the international group of scientists of the ALLATRA International Public Movement, ed. Anastasia Novykh, 2015;

In § 2 we have already said that the overwhelming majority of substances are neither among such good dielectrics as amber, quartz or porcelain, nor among such good current conductors as metals, but occupy an intermediate position between the two. They are called semiconductors. The specific conductivities of different bodies can have very different values. Good dielectrics have negligible conductivity: from to S/m; the conductivity of metals, on the contrary, is very high: from to S/m (Table 2). Semiconductors in their conductivity lie in the interval between these extreme limits.

Of particular scientific and technical interest are the so-called electronic semiconductors. As in metals, the passage of an electric current through such semiconductors causes no chemical change in them; therefore, we must conclude that the free charge carriers in them are electrons, not ions. In other words, the conductivity of these semiconductors, like metals, is electronic. However, already a huge quantitative difference between the specific conductivities indicates that there are very deep qualitative differences in the conditions for the passage of an electric current through metals and through semiconductors. A number of other features in the electrical properties of semiconductors also indicate significant differences between the mechanism of conduction in metals and semiconductors.

Specific conductivity is the current passing through a unit section under the influence of an electric field, the strength of which is 1 V / m. This current will be the greater, the greater the speed acquired in this field by charge carriers, and the greater the concentration of charge carriers, i.e., their number per unit volume. In liquid and solid bodies and non-rarefied gases, due to the "friction" experienced by moving charges, their speed is proportional to the field strength. In these cases, the speed corresponding to a field strength of 1 V/m is called charge mobility.

If the charges move along the field with a speed, then in a unit time, all charges that are at a distance or less from this section will pass through a unit section (Fig. 183). These charges fill the volume [m3], and their number is equal to . The charge carried by them through a unit section per unit time is , where is the charge of the current carrier. Hence,

Rice. 183. To the conclusion of the ratio

The difference in the conductivity of metals and semiconductors is associated with a huge difference in the concentration of current carriers. Measurements showed that there are electrons in 1 m3 of metals, i.e., there is approximately one free electron for each metal atom. In semiconductors, the concentration of conduction electrons is many thousands and even millions of times less.

The next important difference in the electrical properties of metals and semiconductors lies in the nature of the dependence of the conductivity of these substances on temperature. We know (§ 48) that with increasing temperature the resistance of metals increases, i.e., their conductivity decreases, while the conductivity of semiconductors increases with increasing temperature. The mobility of electrons in metals decreases upon heating, while in semiconductors, depending on which temperature range is considered, it can either decrease or increase with temperature.

The fact that in semiconductors, despite a decrease in mobility, the conductivity increases with increasing temperature, indicates that with increasing temperature in semiconductors there is a very rapid increase in the number of free electrons, and the influence of this factor overpowers the influence of a decrease in mobility. At very low temperatures (near 0 K) semiconductors have a negligible number of free electrons, and therefore they are almost perfect dielectrics; their conductivity is extremely low. With increasing temperature, the number of free electrons increases sharply, and at a sufficiently high temperature, semiconductors can have a conductivity approaching that of metals.

This strong dependence of the number of free electrons on temperature is the most characteristic feature of semiconductors, which sharply distinguishes them from metals, in which the number of free electrons does not depend on temperature. It indicates that in semiconductors, in order to transfer an electron from a “bound” state, in which it cannot pass from atom to atom, into a “free” state, in which it easily moves around the body, it is necessary to inform this electron of some energy reserve. This value, called the ionization energy, is different for different substances, but in general it has values ​​​​from a few tenths of an electron volt to several electron volts. At ordinary temperatures, the average energy of thermal motion is much less than this value, but, as we know (see Volume I), some particles (in particular, some electrons) have velocities and energies much greater than the average value. A certain, very small fraction of electrons has enough energy to go from a "bound" state to a "free" state. These electrons make it possible for an electric current to pass through a semiconductor even at room temperature.

As the temperature rises, the number of free electrons increases very rapidly. So, for example, if the energy required to release an electron is eV, then at room temperature, approximately only one electron per atom will have enough thermal energy to release it. The concentration of free electrons will be very low (about m-3), but still sufficient to create measurable electric currents. But if we lower the temperature to -80°C, then the number of free electrons will decrease by about 500 million times, and the body will practically be a dielectric. On the contrary, when the temperature rises to 200°C, the number of free electrons will increase by 20 thousand times, and when the temperature rises to 800°C, by 500 million times. In this case, the conductivity of the body will rapidly increase, despite the decrease in the mobility of free electrons counteracting this increase.

Thus, the main and fundamental difference between semiconductors and metals is that in semiconductors, in order to transfer an electron from a bound state to a free state, it is necessary to impart some additional energy to it, and in metals already at the lowest temperature there are a large number of free electrons . The forces of molecular interaction in metals by themselves are sufficient to release some of the electrons.

A very rapid increase in the number of free electrons in semiconductors with an increase in their temperature leads to the fact that the change in the resistance of semiconductors with temperature is 10-20 times greater than that of metals. The resistance of metals changes by an average of 0.3% with a temperature change of 1°C; in semiconductors, an increase in temperature by 1 ° C can change the conductivity by 3-6%, and an increase in temperature by 100 ° C - 50 times.

Semiconductors adapted to exploit their very high temperature coefficient of resistance are known in the art as thermistors (or thermistors). Thermal resistances find many very important and ever expanding applications in the most diverse fields of technology: for automation and telemechanics, as well as very accurate and sensitive thermometers.

Resistance thermometers, or, as they are called, bolometers, have been used in laboratory practice for a long time, but earlier they were made of metals, and this was due to a number of difficulties that limited their scope. Bolometers had to be made of long, thin wire so that their total resistance was sufficiently high compared to the resistance of the supply wires. In addition, the change in the resistance of metals is very small, and temperature measurement using metal bolometers required extremely accurate measurement of resistances. Semiconductor bolometers, or thermal resistances, are free from these shortcomings. Their resistivity is so high that a bolometer can be as small as a few millimeters or even a few tenths of a millimeter. With such a small size, the thermal resistance extremely quickly takes on the ambient temperature, which makes it possible to measure the temperature of small objects (for example, plant leaves or individual areas of human skin).

The sensitivity of modern RTDs is so great that they can detect and measure changes in temperature per millionth of a kelvin. This made it possible to use them in modern instruments for measuring the intensity of very weak radiation instead of thermopillars (§ 85).

In the cases that we considered above, the additional energy necessary for the release of an electron was imparted to it due to thermal motion, i.e., due to the stock of internal energy of the body. But this energy can also be transferred to electrons when light energy is absorbed by the body. The resistance of such semiconductors when exposed to light is significantly reduced. This phenomenon is called photoconductivity or internal photoelectric effect. Devices based on this phenomenon have recently been increasingly used in technology for the purposes of signaling and automation.

We have seen that in semiconductors only a very small fraction of all electrons is in a free state and participates in the creation of an electric current. But one should not think that the same electrons are constantly in a free state, and all the others are in a bound state. On the contrary, two opposite processes go on all the time in a semiconductor. On the one hand, there is a process of liberation of electrons due to internal or light energy; on the other hand, there is a process of capture of the released electrons, i.e., their reunification with one or another of the ions remaining in the semiconductor - atoms that have lost their electron. On average, each freed electron remains free only for a very short time - from to (from one thousandth to one hundred millionth of a second). Constantly a certain fraction of electrons turns out to be free, but the composition of these free electrons changes all the time: some electrons pass from a bound state to a free state, others from a free state to a bound one. The equilibrium between bound and free electrons is mobile or dynamic.