The main directions in the development of Russian poetry in the middle of the XIX century. Poets of the middle and second half of the 19th century Poetry of the second half of the 19th century review

In the second half of the 19th century, there was a surge of Russian lyric poetry. Only the listing of the most famous names of poets says a lot - Apollon Nikolaevich Maikov (1821-1897), Apollon Alexandrovich Grigoriev (1882-1864), Yakov Petrovich Polonsky (1819-1898), Ivan Savich Nikitin (1824-1861), Alexei Nikolaevich Apukhtin ( 1840-1893), Konstantin Konstantinovich Sluchevsky (1837-1904), Semyon Yakovlevich Nadson (1862-1887), Konstantin Mikhailovich Fofanov (1862-1911), Fedor Ivanovich Tyutchev (1803-1873), Alexei Konstantinovich Tolstoy (1817-1875), Afanasy Afanasyevich Fet (1820-1892), Nikolai Alekseevich Nekrasov (1821-1877/78).

Unfortunately, the triumph of poetry was short-lived. In Russian literature, prose is developing, especially large epic forms. The triumph of prose turned out to be more durable and is associated with the names of I. Turgenev, F. Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy. And yet the poetry of the second half XIX century had a huge role in the development of Russian literature and culture in general. Poetry was a multifaceted system in which there were various forms of manifestation of the lyrical "I". To understand this "I", and the reader must have an open heart and soul. N.V. Gogol noted: “Reading a lyrical work properly is not a trifle at all.”

It is important to remember that poetry developed in two directions - Pushkin's and Gogol's. Romantics of the 19th century (especially A.S. Pushkin) proclaimed its independence from the authorities and the people, considered the poet a creator who was inspired by God. The program for them was a poem by A.S. Pushkin "The Poet and the Crowd". The slogan is the final words "Not for worldly excitement, / Not for self-interest, not for battles, / We were born for inspiration, / For sweet sounds and prayers." The ideas of the Romantics of the beginning of the century were picked up by the Romantics of the second half of the 19th century and substantiated the theory of "pure art". The main provisions of "pure art" can be formulated as follows: art should not depict reality, play a social role. The purpose of art is to create beautiful, i.e. poetic world. Art should exist for the elite.

The opposite point of view on the art of the civil direction was substantiated by N.V. Gogol in the poem "Dead Souls" (the beginning of the seventh chapter). He compared the creator of "art for art's sake" and the writer-denunciator. The principles of the “civilian” direction in the poetry of the second half of the 19th century are most consistently and vividly implemented in the poetry of N.A. Nekrasov.

Gogol proclaimed and embodied the idea that poetry should serve the people. Nekrasov made the peasant the main character of poetry, and the struggle for his happiness - the pathos of his work. The ideas of "pure art" are the basis of the worldview and artistic system of A.A. Feta. From the point of view of the history of poetry, the Pushkin and Gogol trends enriched the literature, culture, poetry of the 19th century and prepared many phenomena of the cultural life of Russia.

The poets of the second half of the 19th century turned out to be receptive to life, to the spiritual atmosphere of Russian society. They continued and developed the traditions of the Russian poetic school of the 18th - early 19th centuries. At the same time, poets were looking for a new poetic language, original forms of its expression. They were concerned about issues of national identity; ratio of good and evil; death and immortality; spiritual generosity of people. A feature of Russian poetry of the 19th century is the magic of sound and word. I. Nikitin conveys the subtlest shades of color, form and sound. Landscape lyrics are intensively developing (A. Maikov, "Landscape"; I. Koltsov, "South and North"; K. Sluchevsky, "Oh, do not scold me for the fact that I lived aimlessly ...", etc.).

Song character, folklore, Russian antiquity, the beauties of domestic nature, the originality of the Russian national character became the source of Russian poetry. Alexander Blok called A. Grigoriev's poem "The Gypsy Hungarian Woman" "the only pearls of its kind in Russian poetry." The "guitar" nature of the poem, set to music, made it a popular romance. Many poems by Y. Polonsky, "The Song of a Gypsy" (arranged to music by P.I. Tchaikovsky) became romances and folk songs. Famous romances were A. Apukhtin's poems, set to music, "A Pair of Bays", "Crazy Nights, Sleepless Nights ..."; S.Ya. Nadson "In the shadow of a pensive garden...".

In the second half of the 19th century, Russian poetry gradually moved towards modernism. Such was the movement in world literature, especially in French poetry. Baudelaire, Rimbaud, Verlaine - the French symbolists were contemporaries of N. Nekrasov, late A.A. Fet, V. Solovyov. The harbingers of modernism in Russia were primarily F.I. Tyutchev, A.A. Fet.

As the researcher V.S. Babaevsky: “Russian poetry of the 19th century, as a whole, with all its structural and chronological diversity, a manifestation of the spirit of the people, does not fit strictly into the boundaries of the century. The last decade, the 1890s, already belongs in its essence to modernism. We can say that for Russian poetry the 20th century began in 1892. Poetry K.M. Fofanova and S.Ya. Nadson connected two centuries of Russian poetry “golden” and “silver”.

Lesson #14

Topic: "Review of Russian literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century"

Goals:

An overview of an entire literary and historical era;

Show the main directions of development of literature in this period;

Assess the contribution of literary figures of the era to the development of Russia;

Learn to collect and organize information;

Select material for messages.

Equipment: presentation on the topic, exhibition of literature.

During the classes.

Teacher's lecture.

1. Socio-political and cultural-historical situation in Russia in the second half of the nineteenth century.

Slide 1.

Introduction by the teacher. Today we will get acquainted with the features of the history and cultural development of Russia in the 2nd half of the 19th century. I want to draw your attention to the epigraph (slide 2) - the words of N.G. Chernyshevsky, who spoke about the role of literature in this historical period as follows:

“Literature in our country so far concentrates almost the entire mental life of the people, and therefore it is directly incumbent on it to deal with such interests that in other countries have already passed, so to speak, into a special department of other areas of mental activity ...”

Individual task Historical reference. 1850s.

A special place in the policy of Russia of this period was occupied by the Eastern question.

In 1853 the war began between Russia and Turkey. (slide 3) Feudal-serfdom, technically backward, with an army formed on the basis of recruitment from a completely illiterate population, Russia was unable to resist the enemies.

The main military operations unfolded directly on its territory, in the Crimea. In October 1854, the Allies laid siege to Sevastopol.

Accession to the throne of Alexander II. (slide 4)

The new sovereign was at the head of the country, tired of the bloody war. In the days of his coronation, many were granted freedom, including the Decembrists. There was an awakening of public thought. An intense search for a social ideal began in philosophy and literature, and the problem of uniting the nation, its spiritual unity, became acute. These searches were especially active in the most influential ideological currents in Russian social thought - Slavophilism and Westernism.

(loving Slavs and loving Western ideas)

Individual task. Historical events of the 1860-1870s

1861 – abolition of serfdom. Great historical significance. Slavery was abolished, and opportunities arose for the development of market relations in the countryside. Russia has practically taken the capitalist path of development. (slide 5)

The turn of the 1860s-1970s is the emergence of revolutionary populism.

(slide 6)

Teacher's word. The social struggle in Russia was reflected in the pages of numerous magazines. Journal controversy has become a bright page in the historical and literary process in Russia.

London was very popularnewspaper "The Bell"1857-1867), which Herzen A.I. published together with Ogarev N.P. The newspaper criticized the reactionary aspirations of top officials, the government and the entire political system of tsarist Russia. The Bell helped many to take a critical look at the reforms of Alexander II, the alignment of socio-political forces in the country. (Lessons of Russian literature, Author - Bikulova I.A., Bryansk, 2003) (slide 7)

Sovremennik magazine(slide 8)

Talented publicist D.I. Pisarev and the magazine "Russian Word"(slide 9)

Many argued with Sovremennik and the Russian Word. Well-known critics A. Druzhinin, V. Botkin, P. Annenkov believed that the artistic value of works is not connected with the requirements of the social situation. Therefore, they were supporters of only "pure art". Critics argued with Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov and Pisarev and evaluated not the ideological orientation, but the artistic features of the works. The main thing for them was the degree of talent of the author and "eternal values" - God, love, beauty, mercy.

It was not easy for readers to sort out the controversy in the journal and the conflicting assessments of the same work.

2. Features of the development of literature and art in the second half of the nineteenth century.

At this time, it was critical realism that gave brilliant creative results. The realistic traditions of culture have approved the concept of "golden age" in Russian art and literature. The gallery of artistic images in the works of Dostoevsky and Tolstoy, Nekrasov and Turgenev, in the music of Tchaikovsky and Mussorgsky, in the paintings of Repin and Perov, Kramskoy and Surikov, in the Maly Theater of the times of Shchepkin and Ostrovsky was a kind of mirror that reflected a kind of mirror that reflected Russian reality.

Literature, painting, music, the theater of the "golden age" purposefully asserted the aesthetics of public life, which gave rise to the world of "humiliated and insulted" and the world of "superfluous people", "typical images in typical circumstances." But Russian art not only reflected the world around it, but transformed his. Russian art was closely connected with spiritual quests in public life.

(slide 10)

The 19th century is rightly called the golden age of Russian literature. Domestic literature has rapidly passed a serious way, it, illuminated by the genius of A.S. Pushkin, N.V. Gogol, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. constellation of the greatest writers, moved into the ranks of the greatest literatures of the world and had a noticeable impact on the artistic culture of all mankind. It has become the center of the spiritual life of society, its conscience, and has always been distinguished by the intensity of philosophical searches.

A grandiose panorama of the life of Russia in the second half of the 19th century was created by outstanding works: “Oblomov” by I.A. Goncharov, “Thunderstorm” and “Dowry” by A.N. Ostrovsky, novels by I.S. N.G. Chernyshevsky, “The Past and Thoughts”, A.N. Herzen, “The History of a City” by Saltykov-Shchedrin M.E., “Crime and Punishment” by F.M. Dostoevsky, “Who Lives Well in Russia” N .A. Nekrasov, "War and Peace" by L.N. Tolstoy, stories by A.P. Chekhov, lyrics by Tyutchev F.I., Tolstoy A.K., Fet A.A.

Realism has become the main direction of Russian literature (slide 11)

The novel became the most relevant genre (slide 12)

Definition of a novel.

Widespread varieties of the genre: social, political, historical, philosophical, psychological, love, family, adventure, fantastic. The novel broadly covered the social conditions of a person's existence, penetrated deeply into the inner world of the character. It was the novels that gained a huge response not only in Russia, but also abroad. Works of Tolstoy L.N., Dostoevsky F.M., Turgenev I.S. almost immediately translated into foreign languages ​​and enjoyed great success.

Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century climbed to the highest ideological and artistic level and reached a position that can be defined as the pinnacle of world art. (Slide 13)

Student messages:

"The Significance of P.I. Tchaikovsky's Creativity in Russian Culture"

"The Mighty Handful" - the creative community of Russian composers"

"The Significance of the Maly Theater in Russia"

"The Meaning of the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions in Russia"

Literature: “Lessons of Russian literature. The second half of the nineteenth century.", Bryansk "Kursiv", 2003

Individual task: reports on the biography of A.N. Ostrovsky.

F. I. Tyutchev (1803 - 1873) According to Yuri Lotman, Tyutchev's work, amounting to a little more than 400 poems, with all its internal unity, can be divided into three periods:

The 1st period is the initial, 1810s - early 1820s, when Tyutchev creates his youthful poems, archaic in style and close to the poetry of the 18th century.

2nd period - the second half of the 1820s - 1840s, starting with the poem "Glimpse", the features of his original poetics are already noticeable in Tyutchev's work. This is a fusion of Russian odic poetry of the 18th century and the traditions of European romanticism.

3rd period - 1850s - early 1870s. This period is separated from the previous one by a decade of the 1840s, when Tyutchev writes almost no poetry. During this period, numerous political poems were created (for example, "Modern"), poems "in case" and a poignant "Denisyev cycle". Magazine "Contemporary".

According to Yu. N. Tynyanov, Tyutchev's small poems are a product of the decomposition of voluminous works of the odic genre that developed in Russian poetry of the 18th century (Derzhavin, Lomonosov). He calls Tyutchev's form a "fragment", which is an ode compressed to a short text. “Thanks to this, Tyutchev’s compositional structures are maximally stressed and look like hypercompensation of constructive efforts” (Yu. N. Chumakov). Hence the “figurative excess”, “oversaturation of components of various orders”, which make it possible to convey the tragic feeling of the cosmic contradictions of being.

One of the first serious researchers of Tyutchev, L. V. Pumpyansky, considers the most characteristic feature of Tyutchev's poetics to be the so-called. "Doublets" - images repeating from poem to poem, varying similar themes "with the preservation of all its main distinguishing features":

- "How the ocean surrounds the globe of the earth ..."

The vault of heaven, burning with star glory

Mysteriously looks from the depths, -

And we are sailing, a flaming abyss

Surrounded on all sides.

- "Swan"

She, between the double abyss,

Your all-seeing dream cherishes -

And with the full glory of the starry firmament

You are surrounded from everywhere.

This determines the thematic and motive unity of Tyutchev's lyrics, the components of which are precisely Tynyan's "fragments". Thus, according to Roman Leibov: ... the interpreter is faced with a well-known paradox: on the one hand, "no separate poem by Tyutchev will be revealed to us in all its depth, if we consider it as an independent unit" ... On the other hand, Tyutchev's corpus is frankly "random" , we have texts that are not institutionally attached to literature, not supported by the author's will, reflecting the hypothetical "Tyutchev's heritage" is obviously incomplete. The "unity" and "crowding" of Tyutchev's poetic heritage make it possible to compare it with folklore.

Very important for understanding Tyutchev's poetics is his fundamental distance from the literary process, his unwillingness to see himself as a professional writer and even disregard for the results of his own work.

Tyutchev does not write poetry, writing down already existing text blocks. In a number of cases, we have the opportunity to observe how the work on the initial versions of Tyutchev's texts is going on: Tyutchev applies various kinds of "correct" rhetorical devices to the vague, often tautologically designed (another parallel with folklore lyrics) core, taking care to eliminate tautologies, clarify allegorical meanings (Tyutchev's text in this sense unfolds in time, repeating the general features of the evolution of poetic techniques described in the works of A. N. Veselovsky devoted to parallelism - from the undivided identification of phenomena of different series to a complex analogy). It is often at the late stage of work on the text (corresponding to the consolidation of its written status) that the lyrical subject is introduced pronominally.

AT love lyrics Tyutchev creates a number of poems, which are usually combined into a “love-tragedy” cycle, called the “Denisiev cycle”, since most of the poems belonging to it are dedicated to E. A. Denisyeva. Their characteristic understanding of love as a tragedy, as a fatal force leading to devastation and death, is also found in Tyutchev's early work, so it would be more correct to name poems related to the "Denisiev cycle" without reference to the poet's biography. Tyutchev himself did not take part in the formation of the "cycle", therefore it is often unclear to whom certain poems are addressed - to E. A. Denisyeva or his wife Ernestina. Tyutche studies have repeatedly emphasized the similarity of the "Denisiev cycle" with the genre of a lyrical diary (confession) and the motives of Dostoevsky's novels (morbidity of feeling).

A. A. Fet (Fet, Shenshin) (1820 - 1892). Being one of the most sophisticated lyricists, Fet amazed his contemporaries by the fact that this did not prevent him from being an extremely businesslike, enterprising and successful landowner at the same time. M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin in many works, especially in the novel "The Diary of a Provincial in St. Petersburg", repeatedly and completely unfairly accused him of adherence to the serfdom. The famous palindromic phrase written by Fet and included in A. N. Tolstoy's "The Adventures of Pinocchio" is "A rose fell on Azor's paw."

In Fet's lyrics there are no complete psychological portraits, characters, the images of the addressees are not outlined, even the image of the beloved is abstract. There is no lyrical hero in the narrow sense either: nothing is known about his social position, life experience, habits. The main place of "action" is a garden in general, a house in general, etc. Time is presented as "cosmic" (the existence of life on earth - its disappearance), natural (season, time of day) and only in the most general form as biological (life-death, youth, or, more precisely, years of fullness of strength - old age, and what -or milestones and boundaries are absent here), but by no means historical time. Thoughts, feelings, sensations are expressed, designed to have a universal meaning, albeit small, private, but understandable to any thinking and feeling person.

Fet is a late romantic with a clear inclination towards psychological realism and accuracy of subject descriptions, but thematically narrow. Its three main themes are nature, love, art (usually poetry and most often "song"), united by the theme of beauty. Fet is extremely inventive in their specific content.

Fet's work is characterized by the desire to escape from everyday reality into the "bright realm of dreams." The main content of his poetry is love and nature. His poems are distinguished by the subtlety of the poetic mood and great artistic skill.

Fet is a representative of the so-called pure poetry. In this regard, throughout his life he argued with N. A. Nekrasov, a representative of social poetry.

A feature of Fet's poetics is that the conversation about the most important is limited to a transparent hint. The most striking example is the poem "Whisper, timid breathing ..."

Whisper, timid breath,

trill nightingale

Silver and flutter

sleepy creek

Night light, night shadows

Shadows without end

A series of magical changes

sweet face,

In smoky clouds purple roses,

reflection of amber,

And kisses, and tears,

And dawn, dawn!..

There is not a single verb in this poem, but the static description of space conveys the very movement of time.

The poem is one of the best poetic works of the lyrical genre. First published in the Moskvityanin magazine (1850), then revised and in the final version, six years later, published in the collection Poems by A. A. Fet (published under the editorship of I. S. Turgenev).

Written in a multi-footed trochaic with female and male cross-rhyming (rather rare for the Russian classical tradition in size). At least three times it became the object of literary analysis.

The romance "At dawn, you don't wake her" was written on Fet's verses.

Another famous poem by Fet "I came to you with greetings."

Nikolai Alekseevich Nekrasov(1821 - 1877). 1847 - 1866 - head of the literary and socio-political journal Sovremennik, from 1868 - editor of the journal Domestic Notes. He is best known for such works as the poem-novel “Who Lives Well in Russia”, the poems “Frost, Red Nose”, “Russian Women”, the poem “Grandfather Mazai and Hares”. His poems were devoted mainly to the suffering of the people, the idyll and tragedy of the peasantry. Nekrasov introduced the richness of the folk language and folklore into Russian poetry, widely using in his works the prose and speech turns of the common people - from everyday to journalistic, from folk vernacular to poetic vocabulary, from oratorical to parodic-satirical style. Using colloquial speech and folk phraseology, he greatly expanded the range of Russian poetry. Nekrasov was the first to decide on a bold combination of elegiac, lyrical and satirical motifs within one poem, which was not practiced before him. His poetry had a beneficial effect on the subsequent development of Russian classical, and later Soviet poetry.

Literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century played an important role in the social life of the country. Most modern critics and readers are convinced of this. At that time, reading was not entertainment, but ways of knowing the surrounding reality. For the writer, creativity itself became an important act of civic service to society, since he had a sincere belief in the power of the creative word, in the likelihood that a book could influence the mind and soul of a person so that he would change for the better.

Opposition in literature

As modern researchers note, it was precisely because of this belief in the literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century that the civic pathos of the struggle for some idea was born, which could play an important role in transforming the country, sending the whole country along one path or another. The 19th century was the century of maximum development of domestic critical thought. Therefore, the speeches in the press of critics of that time entered the annals of Russian culture.

A well-known confrontation that emerged in the history of literature in the middle of the 19th century emerged between the Westernizers and the Slavophiles. These social movements arose in Russia as early as the 40s of the 19th century. Westerners advocated that the true development of Russia began with the reforms of Peter I, and in the future it is necessary to follow this historical path. At the same time, they treated the entire pre-Petrine Russia with disdain, noting the absence of a culture and history worthy of respect. Slavophiles advocated the independent development of Russia, regardless of the West.

Just at that time, a very radical movement became popular among Westerners, which was based on the teachings of utopians with a socialist bias, in particular, Fourier and Saint-Simon. The most radical wing of this movement saw revolution as the only way to change something in the state.

The Slavophiles, in turn, insisted that the history of Russia is no less rich than that of the West. In their opinion, Western civilization suffered from individualism and unbelief, having become disillusioned with spiritual values.

The confrontation between Westernizers and Slavophiles was also observed in Russian literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century, and especially in criticism of Gogol. Westerners considered this writer the founder of the socio-critical trend in Russian literature, while the Slavophiles insisted on the epic fullness of the poem "Dead Souls" and its prophetic pathos. Remember that critical articles played a big role in Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century.

"Naturalists"

In the 1840s, a whole galaxy of writers appeared who rallied around the literary critic Belinsky. This group of writers began to be called representatives of the "natural school".

In the literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century, they were very popular. Their protagonist is a representative of the underprivileged class. These are artisans, janitors, beggars, peasants. The writers sought to give them the opportunity to speak out, to show their customs and way of life, reflecting through them all of Russia from a special angle.

The most popular among them is the genre. It describes different strata of society with scientific rigor. Outstanding representatives of the "natural school" are Nekrasov, Grigorovich, Turgenev, Reshetnikov, Uspensky.

Revolutionary Democrats

By the 1860s, the confrontation between the Westerners and the Slavophils was coming to naught. But disputes between representatives of the intelligentsia continue. Cities, industry are rapidly developing around, history is changing. At this moment, people from various social strata come to the literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century. If earlier writing was the lot of the nobility, now merchants, priests, philistines, officials and even peasants take up the pen.

In literature and criticism, the ideas laid down by Belinsky are developed, the authors pose sharp social questions for readers.

Chernyshevsky lays the philosophical foundations in his master's thesis.

"Aesthetic Criticism"

In the 2nd half of the 19th century, the direction of "aesthetic criticism" received special development in literature. Botkin, Druzhinin, Annenkov do not accept didacticism, proclaiming the inherent value of creativity, as well as its detachment from social problems.

"Pure art" should solve exclusively aesthetic problems, representatives of "organic criticism" came to such conclusions. In its principles, developed by Strakhov and Grigoriev, true art became the fruit of not only the mind, but also the soul of the artist.

soilmen

Soil cultivators gained great popularity during this period. Dostoevsky, Grigoriev, Danilevsky, Strakhov included themselves among them. They developed the ideas in a Slavophilic way, warning at the same time to be too carried away by social ideas, to break away from tradition, reality, history and the people.

They tried to penetrate into the lives of ordinary people, deriving general principles for the maximum organic development of the state. In the magazines Epoch and Vremya, they criticized the rationalism of their opponents, who, in their opinion, were too revolutionary.

Nihilism

One of the features of the literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century was nihilism. In it, the soil scientists saw one of the main threats to real reality. Nihilism was very popular among different sections of Russian society. It was expressed in the denial of accepted norms of behavior, cultural values ​​and recognized leaders. At the same time, moral principles were replaced by the concepts of one's own pleasure and benefit.

The most striking work of this trend is Turgenev's novel "Fathers and Sons", written in 1861. Its protagonist Bazarov denies love, art and compassion. They were admired by Pisarev, who was one of the main ideologists of nihilism.

Genre of the novel

The novel plays an important role in Russian literature of this period. It was in the second half of the 19th century that Leo Tolstoy's epic "War and Peace", Chernyshevsky's political novel "What Is to Be Done?", Dostoevsky's psychological novel "Crime and Punishment", and Saltykov-Shchedrin's social novel "Lord Golovlev" came out.

The most significant was the work of Dostoevsky, reflecting the era.

Poetry

In the 1850s, poetry flourished after a brief oblivion that followed the golden age of Pushkin and Lermontov. Polonsky, Fet, Maikov come to the fore.

In poetry, poets pay increased attention to folk art, history, and everyday life. It becomes important to comprehend Russian history in the works of Alexei Konstantinovich Tolstoy, Maikov, May. It is epics, folk legends and old songs that determine the style of the authors.

In the 1950s and 1960s, the work of civil poets became popular. The poems of Minaev, Mikhailov, Kurochkin are associated with revolutionary democratic ideas. The main authority for the poets of this direction is Nikolai Nekrasov.

By the end of the 19th century, peasant poets became popular. Among them are Trefolev, Surikov, Drozhzhin. She continues the traditions of Nekrasov and Koltsov in her work.

Dramaturgy

The second half of the 19th century is the time of the development of national and original dramaturgy. The authors of the plays actively use folklore, pay attention to peasant and merchant life, national history, and the language spoken by the people. You can often find works devoted to social and moral issues, in which romanticism is combined with realism. These playwrights include Alexei Nikolaevich Tolstoy, Ostrovsky, Sukhovo-Kobylin.

The diversity of styles and artistic forms in dramaturgy led to the emergence at the very end of the century of vivid dramatic works by Chekhov and Leo Tolstoy.

Influence of foreign literature

Foreign literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century has a noticeable influence on Russian writers and poets.

At this time, realistic novels reigned in foreign literature. First of all, these are the works of Balzac ("Shagreen Skin", "Parma Convent", "Eugenia Grande"), Charlotte Bronte ("Jane Eyre"), Thackeray ("Newcomes", "Vanity Fair", "History of Henry Esmond"), Flaubert ("Madame Bovary", "Education of the Senses", "Salambo", "Simple Soul").

In England at that time, Charles Dickens was considered the main writer, his works Oliver Twist, The Pickwick Papers, The Life and Adventures of Niklas Nickleby, A Christmas Carol, Dombey and Son are also read in Russia.

In European poetry, the collection of poems by Charles Baudelaire "Flowers of Evil" becomes a real revelation. These are the works of the famous European symbolist, which caused a whole storm of discontent and indignation in Europe due to the large number of obscene lines, the poet was even fined for violating the norms of morality and morality, making the collection of poems one of the most popular in the decade.

Russian poets of the second half of the 19th century in art