Terms in general biology. Basic concepts of biology. Glossary of basic biological terms and concepts
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1. What does anatomy study?
Human anatomy is the science of the form, structure and development of the human body in accordance with gender, age and individual characteristics.
Anatomy studies the external forms and proportions of the human body and its parts, individual organs, their design, microscopic structure. The tasks of anatomy include the study of the main stages of human development in the process of evolution, the structural features of the body and individual organs in various age periods, as well as in the environment.
2. What does physiology study?
Physiology - (from the Greek physis - nature and logos - word, doctrine), the science of life processes and the mechanisms of their regulation in the human body. Physiology studies the mechanisms of various functions of a living organism (growth, reproduction, respiration, etc.), their relationship with each other, regulation and adaptation to the external environment, origin and formation in the process of evolution and individual development of an individual. Solving fundamentally common problems, the physiology of animals and humans and the physiology of plants have differences due to the structure and functions of their objects. So, for the physiology of animals and humans, one of the main tasks is the study of the regulatory and integrating role of the nervous system in the body. The greatest physiologists participated in solving this problem (I.M. Sechenov, N.E. Vvedensky, I.P. Pavlov, A.A. Ukhtomsky, G. Helmholtz, K. Bernard, C. Sherrington, etc.). For plant physiology, which emerged from botany in the 19th century, it is traditional to study mineral (root) and air (photosynthesis) nutrition, flowering, fruiting, etc. It serves theoretical basis crop production and agronomy. The founders of Russian plant physiology - A.S. Famintsyn and K.A. Timiryazev. Physiology is associated with anatomy, cytology, embryology, biochemistry, and other biological sciences.
3. What does hygiene study?
Hygiene - (from other Greek ? geinyu "healthy", from? gyaeb "health") - the science of the influence of the environment on human health.
As a result, hygiene has two objects of study - environmental factors and the reaction of the body, and uses the knowledge and methods of physics, chemistry, biology, geography, hydrogeology and other sciences that study the environment, as well as physiology, anatomy and pathophysiology.
Environmental factors are diverse and are divided into:
Physical - noise, vibration, electromagnetic and radioactive radiation, climate, etc.
Chemical - chemical elements and their compounds.
· Factors of human activity - the regime of the day, the severity and intensity of labor, etc.
· Social.
Within the framework of hygiene, the following main sections are distinguished:
Environmental hygiene - studying the impact of natural factors - atmospheric air, solar radiation, etc.
· Occupational health - studying the impact of the working environment and factors of the production process on a person.
Communal hygiene - within the framework of which requirements are developed for urban planning, housing, water supply, etc.
· Nutritional hygiene - studying the meaning and impact of food, developing measures to optimize and ensure nutritional safety (often this section is confused with dietetics).
· Hygiene of children and adolescents - studying the complex impact of factors on a growing organism.
· Military hygiene -- aimed at maintaining and improving the combat capability of personnel.
Personal hygiene - a set of hygiene rules, the implementation of which contributes to the preservation and promotion of health.
Also some narrow sections: radiation hygiene, industrial toxicology, etc.
The main tasks of hygiene:
study of the influence of the external environment on the state of health and performance of people. At the same time, the external environment should be understood as the whole complex complex of natural, social, domestic, industrial and other factors.
· scientific justification and development of hygienic standards, rules and measures to improve the environment and eliminate harmful factors;
· scientific justification and development of hygienic standards, rules and measures to increase the body's resistance to possible harmful environmental influences in order to improve health and physical development, increase efficiency. This is facilitated by rational nutrition, physical exercises, hardening, a properly organized work and rest regimen, and observance of personal hygiene rules.
4. What factors disturbing the balance between the environment and the organism are toxins?
In the body of each person there is a certain amount of harmful substances, which are called toxins (from the Greek. toxikon - poison). They are divided into two large groups.
Exotoxins -- harmful substances chemical and natural origin, which enter the body from the external environment with food, air or water. Most often, these are nitrates, nitrites, heavy metals and many other chemical compounds that are present in almost everything that surrounds us. Living in large industrial cities, working in hazardous industries, and even taking medications containing toxic substances are all, to one degree or another, factors of poisoning the body.
Endotoxins are harmful substances that are formed during the life of the body. Especially a lot of them appear in various diseases and metabolic disorders, in particular, with poor bowel function, abnormal liver function, with tonsillitis, pharyngitis, influenza, acute respiratory infections, kidney diseases, allergic conditions, even stress.
Toxins poison the body and disrupt its coordinated work - most often they undermine the immune, hormonal, cardiovascular and metabolic systems. This leads to a complication of the course of various diseases and prevents recovery. Toxins lead to a decrease in the body's resistance, deterioration of the general condition and loss of strength.
One theory of aging suggests that it is caused by the accumulation of toxins in the body. They inhibit the work of organs, tissues, cells, disrupt the course of biochemical processes in them. This ultimately leads to a deterioration in their functions and, as a result, to aging of the whole organism.
Almost any disease is much easier and easier to treat if toxins do not accumulate and are quickly eliminated from the body.
Nature has endowed man with various systems and organs capable of destroying, neutralizing and removing harmful substances from the body. These are, in particular, the systems of the liver, kidneys, lungs, skin, gastrointestinal tract, etc. In modern conditions, it is becoming increasingly difficult to cope with aggressive toxins, and a person needs additional reliable and effective help.
5. What factors does radiation refer to?
Radioactivity is called the instability of the nuclei of some atoms, which manifests itself in their ability to spontaneous transformation (according to scientific - decay), which is accompanied by the release ionizing radiation(radiation). The energy of such radiation is large enough, so it is able to act on the substance, creating new ions of different signs. Induce radiation with chemical reactions no, it's a completely physical process.
There are several types of radiation:
· Alpha particles are relatively heavy particles, positively charged, are helium nuclei.
Beta particles are ordinary electrons.
· Gamma radiation - has the same nature as visible light, but much greater penetrating power.
Neutrons are electrical neutral particles, arising mainly near a working nuclear reactor, access there should be limited.
· X-rays-- are similar to gamma rays, but have lower energy. By the way, the Sun is one of the natural sources of such rays, but the Earth's atmosphere provides protection from solar radiation.
Sources of radiation - nuclear installations (particle accelerators, reactors, X-ray equipment) and radio active substances. They can exist for a considerable time without manifesting themselves in any way, and you may not even suspect that you are near an object of strong radioactivity.
The body reacts to the radiation itself, and not to its source. Radioactive substances can enter the body through the intestines (with food and water), through the lungs (during breathing) and even through the skin in medical diagnostics with radioisotopes. In this case, internal radiation occurs. In addition, a significant effect of radiation on the human body is exerted by external exposure, i.e. The radiation source is outside the body. The most dangerous, of course, is internal exposure.
The effect of radiation on the human body is called irradiation. During this process, the energy of the radiation is transferred to the cells, destroying them. Irradiation can cause all sorts of diseases: infectious complications, metabolic disorders, malignant tumors and leukemia, infertility, cataracts and much more. Radiation is especially acute on dividing cells, so it is especially dangerous for children.
Radiation refers to those factors of physiological effects on the human body, for the perception of which it has no receptors. He is simply not able to see, hear, or feel it by touch or taste.
The absence of direct cause-and-effect relationships between radiation and the body's response to its effects allows us to constantly and quite successfully exploit the idea of the danger of the impact of small doses on human health.
6. What factors are viruses?
Viruses (derived from the Latin virus - "poison") - the smallest microorganisms that do not have cellular structure, a protein-synthesizing system and capable of reproduction only in the cells of highly organized life forms. To designate an agent capable of causing an infectious disease, it was first used in 1728.
The origin of viruses in the evolutionary tree of life is unclear: some of them may have originated from plasmids, small DNA molecules that can be transferred from one cell to another, while others may have originated from bacteria. In evolution, viruses are an important means of horizontal gene transfer, which determines genetic diversity.
Viruses spread in many ways: plant viruses are often transmitted from plant to plant by insects that feed on plant sap, such as aphids; Animal viruses can be spread by blood-sucking insects, such organisms are known as vectors. The influenza virus is spread through the air through coughs and sneezes. Norovirus and rotavirus, which commonly cause viral gastroenteritis, are transmitted by the fecal-oral route through contact with contaminated food or water. HIV is one of several viruses transmitted through sexual contact and through transfusion of infected blood. Each virus has a specific host specificity, determined by the types of cells it can infect. The host range may be narrow or, if the virus infects many species, wide.
Viruses, although very small, they cannot be seen, are the object of study of the sciences:
For physicians, viruses are the most common causative agents of infectious diseases: influenza, measles, smallpox, tropical fevers.
For a pathologist, viruses are the etiological agents (cause) of cancer and leukemia, the most frequent and dangerous pathological processes.
For a veterinarian, viruses are the culprits of epizootics (mass diseases) of foot-and-mouth disease, bird plague, infectious anemia and other diseases that affect farm animals.
For an agronomist, viruses are the causative agents of spotted banding of wheat, tobacco mosaic, yellow potato dwarfism and other diseases of agricultural plants.
For the grower, viruses are the factors that cause the amazing colors of tulips to appear.
For the medical microbiologist, viruses are agents that cause the appearance of toxic (poisonous) varieties of diphtheria or other bacteria, or factors that contribute to the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
For an industrial microbiologist, viruses are pests of bacteria, producers, antibiotics, and enzymes.
For a geneticist, viruses are carriers of genetic information.
For a Darwinist, viruses are important factors in the evolution of the organic world.
For an ecologist, viruses are factors involved in the formation of conjugated systems of the organic world.
For a biologist, viruses are the simplest forms of life, possessing all of its main manifestations.
For a philosopher, viruses are the clearest illustration of the dialectics of nature, a touchstone for polishing such concepts as living and nonliving, part and whole, form and function.
Viruses are the causative agents of the most important diseases of humans, farm animals and plants, and their importance is constantly increasing as the incidence of bacterial, protozoal and fungal diseases decreases.
7. What is homeostasis?
Life is possible only with a relatively small range of deviations of various characteristics of the internal environment - physicochemical (acidity, osmotic pressure, temperature, etc.) and physiological (blood pressure, blood sugar, etc.) - from a certain average value. The constancy of the internal environment of a living organism is called homeostasis (from the Greek words homoios - similar, identical and stasis - state).
Under the influence of environmental factors, the vital characteristics of the internal environment may change. Then reactions occur in the body aimed at restoring them or preventing such changes. These reactions are called homeostatic. When blood is lost, for example, vasoconstriction occurs, preventing a drop in blood pressure. With an increase in sugar consumption during physical work, its release into the blood from the liver increases, which prevents a drop in blood sugar levels. With an increase in heat production in the body, the skin vessels expand, and therefore heat transfer increases, which prevents the body from overheating.
Homeostatic reactions are organized by the central nervous system, which regulates the activity of the autonomic and endocrine systems. The latter already directly affect the tone of blood vessels, the intensity of metabolism, the work of the heart and other organs. The mechanisms of the same homeostatic reaction and their effectiveness can be different and depend on many factors, including hereditary ones.
Homeostasis is also called the preservation of the constancy of the species composition and the number of individuals in biocenoses, the ability of a population to maintain a dynamic balance of the genetic composition, which ensures its maximum viability (genetic homeostasis).
8. What is a cytolemma?
The cytolemma is the universal skin of the cell, it performs barrier, protective, receptor, excretory functions, carries nutrients, transmits nerve impulses and hormones, connects cells into tissues.
This is the thickest (10 nm) and complexly organized cell membrane. It is based on a universal biological membrane, covered on the outside with a glycocalyx, and on the inside, from the side of the cytoplasm, with a submembrane layer. The glycocalyx (3-4 nm thick) is represented by the outer, carbohydrate sections of complex proteins - glycoproteins and glycolipids that make up the membrane. These carbohydrate chains play the role of receptors that ensure that the cell recognizes neighboring cells and intercellular substance and interacts with them. This layer also includes surface and semi-integral proteins, the functional sites of which are located in the supramembrane zone (for example, immunoglobulins). The glycocalyx contains histocompatibility receptors, receptors for many hormones and neurotransmitters.
The submembrane, cortical layer is formed by microtubules, microfibrils and contractile microfilaments, which are part of the cell cytoskeleton. The submembrane layer maintains the shape of the cell, creates its elasticity, and provides changes in the cell surface. Due to this, the cell participates in endo- and exocytosis, secretion, and movement.
The cytolemma performs many functions:
1) delimiting (the cytolemma separates, delimits the cell from the environment and ensures its connection with the external environment);
2) recognition by this cell of other cells and attachment to them;
3) recognition by the cell of the intercellular substance and attachment to its elements (fibers, basement membrane);
4) transport of substances and particles into and out of the cytoplasm;
5) interaction with signaling molecules (hormones, mediators, cytokines) due to the presence of specific receptors for them on its surface;
6) provides cell movement (formation of pseudopodia) due to the connection of the cytolemma with the contractile elements of the cytoskeleton.
Numerous receptors are located in the cytolemma, through which biologically active substances (ligands, signal molecules, first mediators: hormones, mediators, growth factors) act on the cell. Receptors are genetically determined macromolecular sensors (proteins, glyco- and lipoproteins) built into the cytolemma or located inside the cell and specialized in the perception of specific chemical or chemical signals. physical nature. Biologically active substances, when interacting with the receptor, cause a cascade of biochemical changes in the cell, while transforming into a specific physiological response (change in cell function).
All receptors have a common structural plan and consist of three parts: 1) supramembrane, which interacts with a substance (ligand); 2) intramembrane, carrying out signal transfer; and 3) intracellular, immersed in the cytoplasm.
9. What is the importance of the core?
The nucleus is an obligatory component of the cell (exception: mature erythrocytes), where the bulk of DNA is concentrated.
Two important processes take place in the nucleus. The first of these is the synthesis of the genetic material itself, during which the amount of DNA in the nucleus doubles (for DNA and RNA, see Nucleic acids). This process is necessary so that during subsequent cell division (mitosis) the same amount of genetic material appears in two daughter cells. The second process - transcription - is the production of all types of RNA molecules, which, migrating into the cytoplasm, provide the synthesis of proteins necessary for the life of the cell.
The nucleus differs from the cytoplasm surrounding it in terms of the refractive index of light. That is why it can be seen in a living cell, but usually special dyes are used to identify and study the nucleus. The Russian name "nucleus" reflects the spherical shape most characteristic of this organoid. Such nuclei can be seen in liver cells, nerve cells, but in smooth muscle and epithelial cells, the nuclei are oval. There are nuclei and more bizarre shapes.
The most dissimilar nuclei are composed of the same components, i.e. have a common building plan. In the nucleus, there are: nuclear membrane, chromatin (chromosome material), nucleolus and nuclear juice. Each nuclear component has its own structure, composition and functions.
The nuclear membrane includes two membranes located at some distance from each other. The space between the membranes of the nuclear envelope is called the perinuclear space. There are holes in the nuclear membrane - pores. But they are not end-to-end, but are filled with special protein structures, which are called the nuclear pore complex. Through the pores, RNA molecules exit the nucleus into the cytoplasm, and proteins move towards them into the nucleus. The membranes of the nuclear envelope themselves ensure the diffusion of low molecular weight compounds in both directions.
Chromatin (from the Greek word chroma - color, paint) is the substance of chromosomes, which are much less compact in the interphase nucleus than during mitosis. When cells are stained, they are stained brighter than other structures.
The nucleolus is clearly visible in the nuclei of living cells. It has the form of a round body irregular shape and clearly stands out against the background of a fairly homogeneous core. The nucleolus is a formation that occurs in the nucleus on those chromosomes that are involved in the synthesis of RNA ribosomes. The region of the chromosome that forms the nucleolus is called the nucleolar organizer. In the nucleolus, not only RNA synthesis takes place, but also the assembly of ribosome subparticles. The number of nucleoli and their sizes can be different. The products of the activity of chromatin and the nucleolus initially enter the nuclear juice (karyoplasm).
The nucleus is essential for cell growth and reproduction. If the main part of the cytoplasm is separated experimentally from the nucleus, then this cytoplasmic lump (cytoplast) can exist without a nucleus for only a few days. The nucleus, surrounded by the narrowest rim of the cytoplasm (karyoplast), completely retains its viability, gradually ensuring the restoration of organelles and the normal volume of the cytoplasm. However, some specialized cells, such as mammalian erythrocytes, function for a long time without a nucleus. It is also deprived of platelets - platelets, which are formed as fragments of the cytoplasm of large cells - megakaryocytes. Spermatozoa have a nucleus, but it is completely inactive.
10. What is fertilization?
Fertilization is the fusion of a male reproductive cell (sperm) with a female (ovum), leading to the formation of a zygote, which gives rise to a new organism. Fertilization is preceded by complex processes of egg maturation (oogenesis) and spermatozoon (spermatogenesis). Unlike spermatozoa, the egg does not have independent mobility. A mature egg leaves the follicle in the abdominal cavity in the middle of the menstrual cycle at the time of ovulation and enters the fallopian tube due to its suction peristaltic movements and the flickering of cilia. The period of ovulation and the first 12-24 hours. after it are the most favorable for fertilization. If it does not happen, then in the following days regression and death of the egg occur.
During sexual intercourse, semen (semen) enters the woman's vagina. Under the influence of the acidic environment of the vagina, part of the spermatozoa dies. The most viable of them penetrate through the cervical canal into alkaline environment its cavity and 1.5-2 hours after sexual intercourse reach the fallopian tubes, in the ampullary section of which fertilization occurs. Many spermatozoa rush to the mature egg, however, as a rule, only one of them penetrates through the shiny membrane covering it, the nucleus of which merges with the nucleus of the egg. From the moment of the fusion of germ cells, pregnancy begins. A unicellular embryo is formed, a qualitatively new cell - a zygote, from which, as a result of a complex process of development during pregnancy, a human body is formed. The sex of the unborn child depends on the type of sperm that fertilized the egg, which is always the carrier of the X chromosome. In the event that the egg was fertilized by a sperm with the X (female) sex chromosome, a female embryo (XX) occurs. When an egg is fertilized by a sperm with a Y (male) sex chromosome, a male embryo (XY) develops. There is evidence that spermatozoa containing the Y chromosome are less durable and die faster compared to spermatozoa containing the X chromosome. Obviously, in this regard, the likelihood of conceiving a boy increases if the fertilizing sexual intercourse occurred during ovulation. In the event that sexual intercourse was a few days before ovulation, there is a greater chance that fertilization will occur. Eggs are spermatozoa containing the X chromosome, i.e., a higher probability of having a girl.
The fertilized egg, moving along the fallopian tube, undergoes crushing, passes through the stages of blastula, morula, blastocyst, and on the 5-6th day from the moment of fertilization reaches the uterine cavity. At this point, the embryo (embryoblast) is covered on the outside with a layer of special cells - the trophoblast, which provides nutrition and implantation (introduction) into the uterine mucosa, which is called decidual during pregnancy. The trophoblast secretes enzymes that dissolve the uterine ileus, which facilitates the immersion of the fertilized egg into its thickness.
11. What characterizes the crushing stage?
Cleavage is a series of rapid divisions of the zygote without intermediate growth.
After combining the genomes of the egg and sperm, the zygote immediately proceeds to mitotic division - the development of a multicellular diploid organism begins. The first stage of this development is called fragmentation. It has a number of features. First of all, in most cases cell division does not alternate with cell growth. The number of cells of the embryo increases, and its total volume remains approximately equal to the volume of the zygote. During cleavage, the volume of the cytoplasm remains roughly constant, while the number of nuclei, their total volume, and especially their surface area, increase. This means that during the period of crushing, normal (ie, characteristic of somatic cells) nuclear-plasma relations are restored. Mitoses in the course of crushing especially quickly follow one after another. This occurs due to the shortening of the interphase: the Gx period falls out completely, and the G2 period also shortens. Interphase is practically reduced to the S-period: as soon as the entire DNA doubles, the cell enters mitosis.
Cells formed during crushing are called blastomeres. In many animals, they divide synchronously for quite a long time. True, sometimes this synchrony is disturbed early: for example, in roundworms at the stage of four blastomeres, and in mammals the first two blastomeres already divide asynchronously. In this case, the first two divisions usually occur in the meridian planes (pass through the animal-vegetative axis), and the third division - in the equatorial (perpendicular to this axis).
Another one feature crushing - the absence of signs of tissue differentiation in blastomeres. Cells can already "know" their future fate, but they do not yet have signs of nerve, muscle or epithelial.
12. What is implantation?
physiology cytolemma zygote
Implantation (from Latin in (im) - in, inside and plantatio - planting, transplantation), attachment of the embryo to the wall of the uterus in mammals with intrauterine development and in humans.
There are three types of implantation:
Central implantation - when the embryo remains in the lumen of the uterus, attaching to its wall or the entire surface of the trophoblast, or only part of it (in bats, ruminants).
Eccentric implantation - the embryo penetrates deep into the fold of the uterine mucosa (the so-called uterine crypt), the walls of which then fuse over the embryo and form an implantation chamber isolated from the uterine cavity (in rodents).
Interstitial implantation - characteristic of higher mammals (primates and humans) - the embryo actively destroys the cells of the uterine mucosa and is introduced into the resulting cavity; the defect of the uterus heals, and the embryo is completely immersed in the wall of the uterus, where its further development takes place.
13. What is gastrulation?
Gastrulation is a complex process of morphogenetic changes, accompanied by reproduction, growth, directed movement and differentiation of cells, resulting in the formation of germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm) - sources of rudiments of tissues and organs. The second stage of ontogenesis after crushing. During gastrulation, the movement of cell masses occurs with the formation of a two-layer or three-layer embryo from the blastula - the gastrula.
The type of blastula determines the mode of gastrulation.
The embryo at this stage consists of clearly separated layers of cells - germ layers: outer (ectoderm) and inner (endoderm).
In multicellular animals, except for coelenterates, in parallel with gastrulation or, like in the lancelet, a third occurs after it. germ layer- mesoderm, which is a collection of cellular elements located between the ectoderm and endoderm. Due to the appearance of the mesoderm, the embryo becomes three-layered.
In many groups of animals, it is at the stage of gastrulation that the first signs of differentiation appear. Differentiation (differentiation) is the process of the emergence and growth of structural and functional differences between individual cells and parts of the embryo.
From the ectoderm, the nervous system, sensory organs, skin epithelium, tooth enamel are formed; from the endoderm - the epithelium of the middle intestine, digestive glands, the epithelium of the gills and lungs; from the mesoderm - muscle tissue, connective tissue, circulatory system, kidneys, sex glands, etc.
In different groups of animals, the same germ layers give rise to the same organs and tissues.
Gastrulation methods:
Invagination - occurs by invagination of the blastula wall into the blastocoel; characteristic of most groups of animals.
· Delamination (characteristic of coelenterates) - the cells located outside are transformed into the epithelial layer of the ectoderm, and the endoderm is formed from the remaining cells. Usually, delamination is accompanied by divisions of blastula cells, the plane of which passes "at a tangent" to the surface.
Immigration - migration of individual cells of the blastula wall into the blastocoel.
Unipolar - on one section of the blastula wall, usually on the vegetative pole;
· Multipolar - on several parts of the blastula wall.
Epiboly - fouling of some cells by rapidly dividing other cells or fouling of cells of the internal mass of the yolk (with incomplete crushing).
· Involution - screwing inside the embryo of the outer layer of cells increasing in size, which spreads along the inner surface of the cells remaining outside.
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Biological terms of cytology
homeostasis(homo - the same, stasis - state) - maintaining the constancy of the internal environment of a living system. One of the properties of all living things.
Phagocytosis(phago - to devour, cytos - cell) - large solid particles. Many protozoa feed on phagocytosis. With the help of phagocytosis, immune cells destroy foreign microorganisms.
pinocytosis(pinot - drink, cytos - cell) - liquids (together with dissolved substances).
prokaryotes, or pre-nuclear (pro - to, karyo - core) - the most primitive structure. Prokaryotic cells do not have formalized, no, genetic information is represented by one circular (sometimes linear) chromosome. Prokaryotes lack membrane organelles, with the exception of photosynthetic organelles in cyanobacteria. Prokaryotic organisms include Bacteria and Archaea.
eukaryotes, or nuclear (eu - good, karyo - nucleus) - and multicellular organisms with a well-formed nucleus. They have a more complex organization compared to prokaryotes.
Karyoplasm(karyo - nucleus, plasma - content) - liquid content of the cell.
Cytoplasm(cytos - cell, plasma - content) - the internal environment of the cell. Consists of hyaloplasm (liquid part) and organoids.
Organoid, or organelle(organ - tool, oid - similar) - a permanent structural formation of a cell that performs certain functions.
In prophase 1 of meiosis, each of the already twisted two-chromatid chromosomes closely approaches its homologous one. This is called conjugation (well, to be confused with the conjugation of ciliates).
A pair of closely spaced homologous chromosomes is called bivalent.
The chromatid then crosses over with the homologous (non-sister) chromatid on the adjacent chromosome (with which the bivalent is formed).
The place where chromatids cross is called chiasmata. Chiasmus was discovered in 1909 by the Belgian scientist Frans Alfons Janssens.
And then a piece of chromatid breaks off at the site of the chiasm and jumps to another (homologous, i.e., non-sister) chromatid.
Gene recombination has taken place. Result: part of the genes migrated from one homologous chromosome to another.
Before crossing over, one homologous chromosome had genes from the mother's organism, and the second from the father's. And then both homologous chromosomes have the genes of both the maternal and paternal organisms.
The meaning of crossing over is as follows: as a result of this process, new combinations of genes are formed, therefore, there is more hereditary variability, therefore, there is a greater likelihood of new traits that may be useful.
Mitosis- indirect division of a eukaryotic cell.
The main type of cell division in eukaryotes. During mitosis, a uniform, uniform distribution of genetic information occurs.
Mitosis occurs in 4 phases (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase). Two identical cells are formed.
The term was coined by Walter Fleming.
Amitosis- direct, "wrong" cell division. Amitosis was first described by Robert Remak. Chromosomes do not coil, DNA replication does not occur, spindle fibers do not form, and the nuclear membrane does not disintegrate. There is a constriction of the nucleus, with the formation of two defective nuclei, with, as a rule, unevenly distributed hereditary information. Sometimes even a cell does not divide, but simply forms a binuclear one. After amitosis, the cell loses its ability to undergo mitosis. The term was coined by Walter Fleming.
- ectoderm (outer layer),
- endoderm (inner layer) and
- mesoderm (middle layer).
amoeba vulgaris –
the simplest type of Sarcomastigophora (Sarkozhgutikontsy), class Roots, order Amoeba.
The body does not have a permanent shape. They move with the help of pseudopods - pseudopodia.
They feed on phagocytosis.
Infusoria shoe- heterotrophic protozoan.
type of infusoria. The organelles of movement are cilia. Food enters the cell through a special organoid - the cellular mouth opening.
There are two nuclei in a cell: a large one (macronucleus) and a small one (micronucleus).
Yeast- unicellular fungi. Used in cooking and alcohol production
Formed on wet soil or food. It looks like a fluffy white coating, which then turns black from the resulting spores. Used to obtain fermentation products.
Consists of processes:
- synthesis (synonyms - anabolism, assimilation), comes with energy absorption.
- decay (synonyms - catabolism, dissimilation) —
Catabolism, dissimilation are reactions of splitting and oxidation of complex organic substances with the release of energy in the form of heat and ATP.
Three stages:
- preparatory - the breakdown of the polymeric components of food into monomers (in higher organisms it occurs in the digestive tract, in protozoa - in lysosomes);
- anoxic (a name=”Glikoliz”>glycolysis, anaerobic respiration, fermentation); goes in the cytoplasm of the cell:
glucose → pyruvic acid (PVA) + 2ATP- oxygen breakdown (aerobic) - goes on the cristae of mitochondria):
PVC → CO2 + H2O + 36ATPATP- Adenosine triphosphoric acid (adenosine triphosphoric acid is a universal biological energy accumulator. It consists of a nitrogenous base of adenine, a five-atom sugar - ribose and three residues of phosphoric acid.
- the process of synthesis of glucose and other organic substances from carbon dioxide and water due to the energy of sunlight.
Characteristic for plants and some autotrophic protozoa.
6CO 2 + 6H 2 O -> C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2
Consists of two consecutive phases:
- light (in the thylakoids of the gran chloroplast) and
- dark (in the stroma of the chloroplast).
Chemosynthesis- one of the ways of autotrophic nutrition.
During chemosynthesis, the energy for the formation of complex molecules is obtained from the chemical reactions of the oxidation of inorganic matter. This method is typical for prokaryotes.
<Раздел Биологические термины в разработке — т.е. он будет постоянно пополняться>
Below is a brief dictionary of biological terms found on the pages of our site.
Without claiming to be complete, we have tried to provide our readers with accurate and extremely understandable explanations and definitions of individual biological concepts and terms. Enjoy reading!
Cell. biological unit. Plants and animals are made up of cells.
Clone. One of the organisms or cells descended from the same progenitor (that is, having the same genotype).
Rhizome. Underground part of the stem with buds.
plastida. A membrane-bound structure inside plant cells that is outside.
Floor. In many organisms (including vertebrates), sex is determined by the combination of certain chromosomes. In mammals, female cells contain XX chromosomes, while male cells contain XY chromosomes.
Polymorphism. I) The presence in a population of more than one variant of the same gene. 2) The appearance of various forms of the organism at different stages of development.
Acquired Trait. Modification of an organ during the course of an organism due to its use or non-use, as opposed to an inherited trait received from ancestors.
Bract. The leaf that covers the flower.
Recombination. The redistribution of genes or inherited traits in combinations other than those of the parents.
Recessive. A recessive gene shows its signs only if the organism received it from both parents. Recessive is a trait that is transmitted through recessive genes.
RNA, ribonucleic acid. Nucleic acid containing ribose. Carries DNA information about the structure of proteins; transports amino acids to the site of protein synthesis.
Saprophytes. Organisms that feed on organic compounds from dead bodies or animal excretions.
Symbiosis. Mutually beneficial partnership of organisms belonging to different species.
Spore. Not sex cell serving for procreation. Sometimes - a similar cell as part of a special formation.
About the part of the plant - soft and green, or without woody tissues in the ground part.
Stoma. A tiny hole in a leaf through which water evaporates and plants breathe.
Phosphorescence. The emission of light, usually (in animals) not accompanied by the emission of heat, as, for example, in fireflies.
A unique process for the formation of organic compounds from inorganic substances for which the energy of sunlight is used. The main component of the process is chlorophyll.
Chloroplast. A plastid containing chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll. A green pigment in plant cells involved in the process of photosynthesis.
Chromosome. A filamentous structure contained in the nucleus of a cell, which plays an important role in cell division and the transmission of inherited traits.
Cellulose. A carbohydrate that forms the walls of plant cells.
Cytoplasm. The internal semi-liquid environment of the cell, delimited from the external environment by a membrane.
Evolution. Irreversible process of historical change of the living. Its primary basis is changes in the genotypic composition of a population over many generations.
Ecosystem. A system that includes communities of living beings and their habitat; there are nutritional bonds, energy exchange and other interrelations between the components.
Ecology. The science of the relationship of organisms with each other and with the environment.
Ethology. The science of animal behavior.
Nucleus. The part of a cell bounded by a double membrane and containing DNA.
Ovipositor. External genital organ for laying eggs in females of many and some fish.
Department of Education, Science and Youth Policy of the Voronezh Region
state budgetary professional educational institution
Voronezh region"Voronezh State
Industrial - Technological College "
Compiled by:
O.Yu. Nesvetaeva
Voronezh - 2016
Tutorial designed for college students and teachers. The manual discusses the basic terms in biology. A brief dictionary of biological terms is necessary for the successful development of natural science disciplines. The guide can be used to prepare to tests and exams, as well as handouts.
Printed by decision methodological council GBPOU VO "VGPTK", 2016
Explanatory note
Modern biology is a synthetic science, having absorbedwhich includes a complex of related sciences - physics, chemistry, coppercyn. At the same time, biology is one of the oldest sciences,having deep historical roots and traditions.The language of science is formed both from established concepts andand from terms introduced from other disciplines. Often aloneand the same concepts have different semantic meanings inspecific branches of knowledge.
Terms form the basis of the scientific vocabulary of any science.ki, reflect thinking and concepts in this branch of knowledge."Term - a word or phrase that is a nameI eat a certain concept of some special areaty science, technology, art. (S. I. Ozhegov, 1961).
In the past, Latin was considered the scientific language, and allscientists of the world wrote their works in this language. Latinlanguage adopted many terms from Greek. Therefore, most of the words of scientific terminology are associated with these classical languages. The vast majority of biological language is formed from parts of words (prefix, koren, suffix). Knowledge of individual elements of termsfacilitates memorization, enables groupingSort them by common elements of words. This will greatly helpgaet in the understanding of linguistic origin (etymology) andmakes it easier to remember terms.
For example, if the terms have the prefixendo-,- this is oz begins that the concept refers to some internal structure tour, and if exo..., then to the outside. Having learned several dozen parts of words of Latin and Greek origin,you can navigate in the meaning of hundreds of biological mines.
This guide makes it much easierpreparation for the test. The dictionary includes mainly termines of foreign origin and the provisions of thatsome conventional symbols for understanding, like a stamen, a dog teak, herd, etc.
In brackets after each term in Russian transcriptionparts of words and their translation from the language from whichthe term is formed. The following abbreviations have been adopted: lat. -Latin, gr. - Greek, English - English, French - franctsuzsky, it. - Deutsch.
Concise Dictionary of Biological Terms
ABIOTIC FACTORS (a - negation, bios - life, gr.) - a set of factors of inorganicchildbirth (temperature, humidity and etc.).
AVITAMINOSIS (a - negation, vita - life, lat.,amines - nitrogen-containing organic compounds) - onmetabolic disorder due to lack or lack of vitamins.
AUTO ... (autos - himself, gr.) - an integral part of complexwords denoting "himself", "the same", "own", "selfstvenny" or "automatic", "autonomous". For example,cell autoregulation, heart automation.
AUTOTOMY (auto and tome - section, gr.) - samokalechenie, the ability of some animals to throw off partshis body (for example, the tail during a predator attack - in lizards).
AUTOTROPHIC ORGANISMS (auto and trophy - food,gr.) - organisms capable of synthesizing organic mattersubstances from inorganic. “There are two groups:a photo synthetics, containing chlorophyll and synthesizing organs cal
substances from carbon dioxide and water due to the sun noah energy, and chemosynthetics - synthesizing substances frommineral compounds due to the energy of some chemicalchemical reactions (number of bacteria).
ADAPTATION (adaptation - adaptation, lat.) -a set of general defensive reactions that occur in the organnism of animals and humans under the influence of stimuli,contributing to the restoration of disturbed balance andaimed at maintaining the constancy of the internal environment organism (homeostasis).
ADENINE - purine base, along withguanine part of DNA, RNA, ATP and some enzymes.Found in all living cells.
ADP - adenosine diphosphoric acid.
ACCLIMATIZATION - (ak-k, pro, clima - tilt,lat., the ancient Greeks associated climatic differences withunequal inclination of the sun's rays to the earth's surfaceness) - the adaptation of a species to new conditionspits of existence into which he fell as a result of artits military overpopulation.
ALLELES (allelon - mutually, gr.) - modifiedor different states of the same gene, leading to different variations of the same trait, arise due to mutations.
ALLELIC GENES lie in homologous chromosomes max and occupy identicalloci.
AMINO ACIDS - organic compounds that combine the properties of acids andamines, i.e. containing carboc strong group (-COOH) and amino group N H 2 ). Have pain what is the importance in the life of organisms, i.e. are the mainmi structural units of protein molecules.
AMITOSIS (a - negative particle, mitos - thread) -direct nuclear fission by constriction without formationxro mosom, outside mitotic cycle. It is carried out without visible rebuilding of the kernel.
AMF - adenosine monophosphoric acid
AMPI... (amphi - around, around, on both sides) -part of compound words corresponding to the words "from both hundredron", "around", "twofold" (for example, amphibians livingin an amphibious environment).
ANABIOSIS (ana - back, biosis - life, revivenie, gr.) - the state of the body in which vital processes (metabolism etc.) are so slow thatall visible manifestations of life are absent.
ANALYZER (analysis - decomposition, dismemberment,parsing, gr.) - a complex system of nervous formations in highour vertebrates and humans, carrying outperception, analysis of stimuli from external and internalbody environment.
ANALYSIS CROSS - crossing an individual genotype which needs to be determined, with a form purely recessive for the studiedalleles. Such a cross ion makes it possible in the first generation of hybrids to determinegametes analyzed form.
AMPEL PLANT (ampel - hanging vase,it.) - an ornamental plant with long hanging downon the run, grown in hanging vases(ampels) or hanging pots (for example, tradescantia).
ANALOGY (analogy - similarity, correspondence, similaritybee, gr.) - secondary, i.e. not inherited from common prekov morphological similarity of organs in organisms of differentsystematic groups, due to the similarityfunctions performed by these bodies. The term was also introduced Aristotle (Similar bodies).
ANATOMY (anatomy - dissection, dismemberment, gr.) - chapter morphology, studying the shape and structure of individualorgans, organ systems and the body as a whole. Allocateana plant tomia, phytotomsho, animal anatomy (zooto miyu), extracting from it human anatomy. Similarity studywa and differences animal dealscomparative anatomy animal mission.
ANAPHASE (ana - back, phase - manifestation, gr.) -one of the phases of division -meiosis or mitosis. Anaphase of meiosis stage 1 division of maturation(reducing division) primary spermatocytes and oocytes, as a result of which it is paired nye homologous chromosomes, separating from each othermove towards opposite poles.
ANAPHASE OF MITOSIS - the third one followingmetaphase oh stage of mitosis during which the longitudinal halvesmetaphase chromosomes - chromatids disconnect quickly and diverge along chromosome strandsachromatic faith tena towards its poles.
ANTHROPOGENESIS (anthropos - man, gr.) - originwalking of man, his formation as a species in the processsociety formation -sociogenesis. Anthropology - the science of man.Anthropogenic factor - impact human activity on natural ecosystems.
ANTHROPOMORPHISM - endowment with human kaqualities of animals, plants, objects and phenomena of inanimatenature, likeness to man.
APPENDIX (appendix - appendage, lat.)(worm figurative process) - appendage of the caecum to a mammalshchih. Removed from a personappendicitis.
AREAL (arealis - area, space, lat.) - aboutthe extent of distribution of any category of animals orplants (species, genus, etc.).
AROMORPHOSIS, AROGENESIS (airo - I raise, genesis - origin, occurrence, gr.) - one of the waysbiolo logical progress (according to A.N. Severtsev, 1931); adaptedions that arise in some in the process of evolution of the animalnyh, raising the taxon to a fundamentally new, moreprogressive stage of development (for example, the emergence flight).
ARTERIES (artery - windpipe, circulatoryvessel, lat.) - blood vessels that carry blood,enriched with oxygen from the heart to organs and tissues.
ASSIMILATION (assimilation - assimilation, lat.) - inbiology is one of the aspects of metabolism, the process of assimilationthe body's supply of nutrients necessary for life inactivity.
ATAVISM (atavi - progenitor, lat.) - manifestationin organisms of properties and signs characteristic of distant ancestors.
ATP - adenosine triphosphoric acid. Contained inevery cell of animals and plants.
AUTOSOME (autos - himself, soma - bodies, gr.) - allchromosomes in the cells of dioecious animals, plants andmushrooms, exceptsex chromosomes. In diploid human cells contain 22 pairs of autosomes and 1a pair of sex chromosomes.
AEROBES (aeros - air, bios - life, gr.) - orgnisms, for the growth and reproduction of which it is necessary to have cashwhich free oxygen.
BENTHOS (benthos - depth, gr.) - a set of orgnisms living at the bottom of reservoirs.
BIOGENIC ELEMENTS - chemical elementsconstantly included in the composition of organisms and necessary for them to live (C, H, O - only about 20). In nature exist biochemical cycles or biogeochemical cru speech of substances having a cyclical nature.
BIOGEOGRAPHY (bio and geography) - a section of science,studying the patterns of distribution of organisms "on the globe. It is divided intogeography of plants and ogeography.
BIOGEOCOENOSIS (bios - life, ge - earth, koinos - common, gr.) - a homogeneous area of \u200b\u200bthe surface with a definedcomposition of organisms (biocenosis) and their environmentabiotic environment, relatively selfproper metabolism and type of use of sweatas solar energy, relatively long-term self-sustainingliving homogeneous natural environment. The science of biogeocenoses is calledbiogeocenology.
BIOMASS (bios - life, gr., mass - lump, piece,lat-.) _ expressed in units of mass or energy of those orother organisms per unit area or volume.
BIONICS (bion - element of life, literally - I liveshchy, gr.) - one of the areas of biology and cybernetics,studying the features of the structure and life of the organnisms in order to create more advanced technicalsystems or devices.
BIOSYNTHESIS (bios - life, synthesis - education, GR. ) _ the process of formation of substances necessary for the body,flowing in its cells with the participationbiocatalysts - enzymes. In the process of biosynthesis from starting materials,more complex compounds are formed - proteins, polysaccharides and
others
BIOSPHERE (bios - life, sphere - ball, shell, gr. ) - the shell of the Earth, the composition, structure and energy of cowhich are determined by the cumulative activity of living organ nisms.
BIOTIC FACTORS (bio and factor - dogenerating, producing, lat.) - a set of influences of someorganisms to others.
BLASTOMERE (blast - sprout, meros - part, share, GR. ) _ the general name of the embryonic cells arisingdue to crushing of the egg by mitotic division andcharacterized by a lack of growth.
BLASTULA (blast - sprout, gr.) - embryonic phaseth development of multicellular animals, which completesprimary division of the eggblastomeres.
VACUOLES (vacuole, fr., from vacuum - empty) - cavities incytoplasm animal and plant cells, limitednye membrane and filled with liquid.
VEGETATIVE ORGANS IN PLANTS (vegetati vus - vegetable, lat.) - parts of the body of higher plants,performing the basic functions of nutrition and metabolismwith the environment (root, stem, leaf).
VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION - education buthowling specimen from partpawalls, one of the waysasexually breeding (part of the stem, root, leaf, bulbs,tubers, rhizomes, etc.).
BEH S (vein - blood vessel, vein, lat.) - kroveins that carry blood from organs and tissues to the heart tsu .
VIBRIO (vibrio - I hesitate, tremble, fr.; vibrio - one of the genera of bacteria, lat.) - gram-negative, curved in the form of a comma, usually mobile cells with polarny flagella.
HABIT (habitus - appearance, appearance) - externalny appearance of the organism, a set of features that characterizeshchih general type physique.
GAMETE (gamete - wife, gametes - husband, gr.) - polo wow cell, reproductive cell animals and plants, withhaploid set of chromosomes (when they merge, they form double - diploid set of chromosomes).
GASTRULA (gaster - stomach, gr.) - a lot of germcell animals duringgastrulation (process isolatedthe formation of two primary germ layers, the outer one -ectoderm and internal - endoderm).
GEM (hemat, hemato, hemo, gr.) - an integral part of the complexwords, denoting "pertaining to the blood." For example,hemoglobin in the blood of animals.
GENE (genos - genus, origin, gr.) - structural andfunctional elementary particle of hereditary information, which is a portion of the DNA molecule (for RNA viruses), which controls the occurrence of anytrait under certain conditions.Genes are allelic - alleles.
GENESIS (genesis - origin, occurrence) -part of compound words denoting origin, processeducation (eg.anthropogenesis).
GENETICS - the science of heredity and variabilityty living organisms.
GENERATIVE BODIES plants (gener - rozhI give, produce, lat.) - perform the functions of sexual time multiplication. generative cell - a cell that gives sweat stvo.
HERMAPHRODITE (Hermaphroditos - the son of Hermes and Aphrodite, a mythical bisexual creature, gr.) - bisexualcreature, the presence of male and female organs in onenoah and the same individual.
GENOTYPE (gene and typos - imprint, sample, type,gr.) - the totality of all genes inherent in a given individual.gene pool - the totality of genes that individuals havegiven population, group of populations or species.Geno protection fund - one of the central tasks of nature conservation.
HETHER - (hetero, heteres - different, gr.) - compositepart of compound words denoting "other", "dissimilar".
HETEROSYGOTE (hetero and zygotos - connected together, gr.) an organism (cell) thathomologous chromosomes carry different alleles (alternativewe) of a particular gene.
HETEROSIS (heteronosis - change, transformation, gr.) (hybrid power) - superiority of hybridsa number of features and properties over parent forms.
HETEROTROPHIC ORGANISMS (HETEROTROPHS) (hetero and trophy - food, gr.) - organisms that are usedthey use ready-made organic compounds for their nutrition.
HYBRID (hybris, hybridos - incest, gr.)
a heterozygous organism that results from a crossmatching parent forms with differentgenotypes (by hybridization)..
HYGIENE (hygienos - healing (about health)) sectionpreventive medicine, studying the influence of externalenvironment on human health, its working capacity, etc.A special section of hygiene issanitation.
HYDRO... (gidor - water, gr.) - part of compound words,indicating relationship to water.Hydrobiology - the science about aquatic organisms.
HYDROSPHERE - water shell of the Earth.Hydropo Nika - growing plants using aqueous solutions containing the necessary nutrients.Guide profile substances - Substances in which energy is attractedsolubility to water is high and, consequently, the solubility is especiallyquite large, as opposed tohydrophobic substance to you
HYDROPHILES organisms that prefer moist habitat.
HYDROPHOBS - avoid places with high humidity ness (fileo - love, phobos - fear, gr.).
GLYCOLYSIS (glycis - sweet, liz - dissolve,gr.) - an enzymatic oxygen-free decomposition processcarbohydrates (mainly glucose) to lactic acid.
HOMEO... (homonos - similar, identical, gr.) -"similar"; "similar", "the same".
HOMEOSTAS (homeo and stasis - immobility, consistingnie, gr.) - ability biological systems resistchanges and keep dynamic relative constantvariety of composition and properties.
HOMO... (homos - equal, identical, mutual, aboutshchy, gr.) - part of compound words denoting equality,uniformity unity.
HOMOLOGY , in biology - the similarity in the structure of the organnew different species of animals and plants, due tobecause they come from the same primordia(homologous organs). homology - characteristics of the body(or group of organisms) having in the chromosome setcouple or more coupleshomologous sex chromosomes and as a result, they form gametes identical in the set of chromosomes.Homozygote - diploid or polyploida cell (individual) whose homologous chromosomes carry an identitytypical alleles of a particular gene.
HORMONE(S) (hormonium, gormao - to bring into motionmotion, induce, gr.) - biologically active substances,produced by endocrine glandswashed into the blood and affecting the activity of organs by actingvisualization or inhibition of enzymatic processes.
GRADATION (gradatio - gradual increase, gradus - step, degree, gr.) - stepwise perfectionorganization of living beings in the process of phylogenesis inevolutionary theory of J. B. Lamarck.
GRANS (granulum - grain, lat.) - located nye in chloroplast cylindrical, superimposed on each otherother flat sacs formed by membranes, wherechlorophyll is produced.
GUANING one of two purine basesalong with adenine in the composition of nucleic acids.
DEGENERATION (degenerate, degenero - degenerate,lat.) - 1. Simplification of the structure of organs and tissues in the processontogenesis of organisms(morphophysiological regression). 2. Reduction of individual organs and entire systems in the processphylogenesis.
denaturation (de-prefix denoting removal,loss, nature - natural properties, lat.) - loss withnative configuration by molecules of proteins, nucleic acidslot and other biopolymers as a result of heating, chemicalchemical processing, etc.(protein denaturation).
DEPRESSION (depression, depression - to hit, to givelyat) - a painful state of melancholy, depression, hopelessnesshodnosti, despair in some psychological diseases. In selectiondepression denote negative effects inbreeding.
DIVERGENCE (divergo - deviate, depart,lat.) - in evolutionary doctrine - the divergence of signsorganisms during evolution.
DIPLOID (diploos - double, eidos - view, gr.) -an organism whose cells carry two homologous sets chromosomes (diploid set).
DISSIMILATION (dissimilis - dissimilar, lat.) -in biology, the destruction of organic compounds with transformationschenie organic substances (proteins, fats, etc.) in the prosolid substances (respiration, fermentation, glycolysis, etc.).
DNA - deoxyribonucleic acid. Contained inthe nucleus of the cell, as well as in small amounts in the mitochondriahs and chloroplasts. Consists of two spirally woundnyh, one around the other, chains.
DOMINANCE (dominantis - dominant,lat.) - the participation of only one allele in determining the prizenaka in a heterozygous individual(dominant trait).
ZYGOTE (zygotos - connected together, gr.) - cell,formed by the fusion of gametes of different sexesfertilized egg, the initial stage of embryonic development sha.
ZOO... (zoon - animals, gr.) - part of compound words,indicating a relationship with the animal world. For example,zoology, zoogeography.
IDIOADAPTATION (idios - special, peculiar and adaptation, gr.) (allomorphosis) - private accommodationorganisms to a certain way of life in specificenvironmental conditions. Corresponding direction evolucia is calledallogenesis.
VARIABILITY - property of living organismsto act in various forms (options). Variability may be hereditary (genotypic), which obus caught by the emergence of new genotypes and leads, asusually to change the phenotype. At the heart of this type of changemutations or a combination of fusions inzygote of pre-existing gametes carrying different genes(combinative variability).
NON-HERITAGE (MODIFICATION) from variability reflects a change in the phenotype under the influence ofconditions for the existence of an organism that do not affect the genotype.
IMAGO (imago - image, likeness, lat.) - sexual perceptionbarking form in the development cycle of ticks, insects, helminths.
IMMUNITY (immunitas - liberation, deliverancefrom something, lat.)(immunity, resistance, resistance resistance) - the body's ability to protect its own integrity and biological identity (including immunity to infectious diseases). The science - immunology
INSTINCT (instinctus - impulse, lat.) - evoevolutionally developed innate adaptive formma behavior characteristic of this species of animals, beforewhich is a collection of inherited similarreactions to external and internal stimuli.
INSULIN a protein hormone produced bygastric gland.
INTERPHASE (inter - between and phase, lat.) - the time of functional activity between two cell divisions niami.
CAMBIUM (cambium - exchange, gr.) - educationaltissue located between reclaimed wood andrich bast in dicotyledonous and gymnosperms andproducing an increase in their root or stem in thickness.
CAPILLARY (capillaris - hair, lat.) - strandedthe largest blood or lymphatic vessels.
GOLGI COMPLEX (Golgi apparatus, plates chat complex) - cellular organelle consisting of cytoplasma membranes, almost devoid of ribosomes.It performs a number of important functions: modification of proteins, upaforging secreted products into granules, synthesis of somepolysaccharides, the formation of a cell membrane, formed nie lysosomes.
COMPLEMENTARY (compliment - additionalnie, lat.) - mutually complementary action of two dominantsny genes that have an impact on the appearance of someor a new hereditary trait.
COMPLIMENTATION , in genetics - association inzygote of two mutant alleles of the same gene, resulting inrestoration of the originalphenotype.
CONVERGENCE (convergo - approaching, converging,lat.) - independent development of similar signs in differentgroups of organisms under similar environmental conditions.
CONJUGATION (conjugation - connection, lat.) - 1)at animals - the sexual process, which consists in a temporaryconnection of two individuals and the exchange of parts of a nuclear apparatusthat, as well as a small amountcytoplasm 2) in chromo catfish - pairwise temporal approachhomologous chromosomes, at which the exchange of their homologous regions is possible -crossing over. Conjugation is also observed in algae,lower fungi and bacteria as a form of the sexual process.
CRYSTA (krista - outgrowth, comb, lat.) - foldinner membranemitochondria.
THE CYCLE OF SUBSTANCES in nature - relatively repetitive interrelated physical, chemical andbiological processes of transformation and movement of substances in nature.
LEUKOPLASTS (leucos - white, plastos - moldedlenny, gr.) - colorless plastids of spherical or spindle-shaped form, are found in most higher andsome lower plants. In young cells of leaves and stems, they formchloroplasts.
leukocytes (leuko ... and kitos - cell, gr.) - foreblood elements, colorless, functionally differentshaped, motile animal cells, white blood cells body.
LYSOSOME (lysis - dissolution, decay, decompositionnie, soma - body, gr.) - organoid of animal cells, waspperforming intracellular digestion. Contains a set of enzymes involved in the processes of digestion.
LYMPH (lymph - pure water, moisture, lat.) - colorlessnaya fluid in the body of vertebrates, formedfrom blood plasma by filtering it.
LIP..., LIPO... (lipos - fat, gr.) - an integral part of the words denoting "fat", "fat".Lipids- giro similar substances found in all living cellsinvolved in many vital processes, includingle - in the formation of an energy reserve, thermal insulationcovers, etc. Sometimes they are indicatedlipoids.
MACRA..., MACRO... (macro - long, large) -an integral part of compound words denoting "big", "large". For example,macronucleus - vegetative nucleusciliates, Controlling vegetative and syntheticprocesses in the cell.macromolecule - molecule, moleculewhose mass is more than 1000 daltons. Possesses colloidproperties.
MACROEVOLUTION (macro and evolution), - evolution,leading to the emergence of genera, families and other higherof our systematic categories (above the species).
MALPIGIAN VESSELS (after the scientist Malpigs) - narrow, long, blindly closed on one sidetubules, excretory organs of insects, arachnids andcentipedes. Located on the border of the middle and back intestines.
MESO..., MEZ... (mesos - middle, intermediate,gr.) - part of compound words, denoting the middle velirank or intermediate position of something.
MESODERM (meso and dermis - skin, gr.) - mediumgerm layer in multicellular animals (exceptsponges and coelenterates).
MEIOSIS (meiosis - reduction, gr.) - a way of doingcells, which results in the reduction(decrease) in the number of chromosomes and the transition of cells from diploid state to haploid. Main linkgametogen per.
CELL MEMBRANE (membrane - skin,lat.) - a biological membrane surrounding the protoplasmliving cell, participates in the regulation of metabolism betweenthe cell and its environment.
META (meta - between, after, through, gr.) - part of thewords, denoting intermediateness, transition to somethingor to another, change of state, transformation, for example,metabolism(metabolism).
METAPHASE (meta and phase - manifestation) - the secondthe stage of cell division during which the nuclear envelopedissolves, and chromosomes are located at the equator cells.
METAMORPHOSIS (metamorphosis - transformation, gr.) -yanimal deep transformation of the body, in produring which the larva develops into an adult.Occurs in most invertebrates, minodin, lungfish, amphibians.
METHODS OF STUDYING HEREDITARY OF HUMANS CENTURIES , 4 methods stand out:
1Genealogical - the study of the pedigree of people beyond the possible more generations; 2.Gemini - study nie signs in twins. The studyidentical twins tsov, if they live in different conditions, let us judgeabout the role of the environment in their development; 3.cytogenetic - the study chromosome complex, chromosome mutations, better formetnyh at the stage of metaphase of mitosis;
4 Biochemical - study of metabolism.
THE MENTOR METHOD - one of the selection techniques"education", developed by I. V. Michurin. signsdeveloping hybrid change under the influence of scion androotstock (stock and scion are replaced depending on the desiremy results).
MICRO... (micro - small, small, gr.) - partcompound words indicating small size or small-the size of something.Microbiology - the science of microorg nismah (bacteria), sometimes cinese is also included herealgae, microscopic algae and fungi, archaebacteria, protozoa. Termbacteriology more commonly used lyatsya in medicine.micronucleus, - small (generative) nucleus v ciliates.
MICROELEMENTS - chemical elements that haveXia in organisms in low concentrations (1: 4.00 000 and below).
MICROEVOLUTION - a set of evolutionaryprocesses within a species, within individual or adjacent populations.
MIMICRY (mimikos - imitative, gr.) - imitative similarity of an unprotected organism with a protectednym or with inedible. One of the typespatronizing noah coloring and forms.
MIO... (mios - muscle, gr.) - part of compound words,referring to the muscles. For example,myocardium (kard - heart, gr.) - cardiac muscle.myofibrils (fiber - fiber, lat.) - contractile fibers insarco plasma striated muscle fibers, cardiacmuscles and muscles with double oblique striation, providepulsating muscle contractions.
MITOSIS (mitosis - vit, gr.)(mitosis) - indirect division, characterized by complex processes, occurredwalking in the nucleus as a whole. Provides gene formationgenetically equivalent cells and maintains continuity in a number of cell generations. Occurs in separate stages yam: interphase (intekinesis), and then prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
MITOCHONDRIA (mito and chondrosis - grain, gr.) -cell organelles that are capable ofreplication and is are the energy system and the center of cellular respiration niya.
MODIFICATIONS (modification, modus - measure, type,fazio - do) - non-hereditary (phenotypic) ofvariability due to the action of the external environment on catfishtic cells and not affecting the chromosomal apparatusgametes. They are environmentally adaptive and reversible. ter.
MONO... (moios - one, only, one, gr.) -part of compound words meaning "one", "one".Mono hybrid - a hybrid heterozygous for one lare of alleles.monohybrid cross - one of the rules Mendel. Monosaccharides - simple sugars, one of the basesnyh groups of carbohydrates.
MUTATIONS (mutatio - change, lat.) - sudden, natural or caused artificially inherited fromchanges in genetic material that lead to a changecertain characteristics of the body. There are mutations:genetic - invasive, with qualitative changes from good genes, chromosome, related to transformationchromosomes (this includespolyploidy), somatic, in which there are changes in somatic cells.Most mutations are recessive and occur in genes located on the chromosomes of germ cells. So maybe arise recessive mutation.
HEREDITY - property of living mattertransfer the properties of parents to offspring, which providescontinuity of morphological, physiological, biochimical organization of organisms in a number of generations and obuscatches the specific nature of ontogeny in a certainenvironmental conditions. Genetic factors may benot only in the nucleus, but also in the cytoplasm. Therefore, there is concept - cytoplasmic variation.
NEURON (neuron - vein, nerve, gr.) - nerve cellka (neutrocyte), the main structural and functionalunit of the nervous system that has a specificexcitability phenomenon. Part of compound words -neuro... uka refers to the nervous system.
NOOSPHERE (noos - mind, sfeira - ball, gr.) -a new ratio of the biosphere, in which a reasonable actionhuman capacity becomes the main, determining factorthe torus of its development(sphere of mind).
REACTION RATE - in genetics - the limits of the modificationrational variability of the trait. Change in genotype withinfluence of the environment is calledmodification changeable stu.
NUCLEO... (nucleus - core, lat.) - part of complexwords related to "nucleus", "nuclear".Nucleic acid you - phosphorus-containing biopolymers having a unisebaceous distribution in the animal environment (DNA, RNA),found in the nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts and cyto plasma.
"DOUBLE SPIRAL" DNA - polymer, consists of monomers - nucleotides (adenine, guanine, thymine, cyto zina). The linkage of nucleotides into a chain occurs through phosphoric acid anddeoxyribose. Among RNAs, there are different types: transfer RNA (t-RNA), which is trans portates amino acids to the site of protein synthesis,inform cationic RNA (i-RNA) - carries information about the structureture of the protein to be synthesized,ribosomal RNA (r-RNA)- contained in ribosomes.
METABOLISM (metabolism) - regular according toa series of transformations of matter and energy in living systems,underlying life. Set of reactionsbiosynthesis (synthesis of substances in the cell) is calledplastic exchange, orassimilation. The set of cleavage reactions oncallenergy exchange cells, ordissimilation.
OVULATION (ovum - egg, lat.) - the release of the egginto the body cavity. One of the formssexual (or menstrual) cycle in animals.
ONTOGENESIS (he, ontos - being, genesis - aboutorigin, birth(ontogeny) - individual;development of an individual, the totality of its transformations from behindbirth until the end of life.
ORGANOID (organon - organ, tool, instrument,eidos - view, gr.) - cellular structures, cellular organny, providing the performance of specific functions c.cell life process. Specific structurestours of unicellular animals that perform a certainfunction is calledorganelles. Often organoid and organellela v contemporary literature are used as synonyms. TO.the same part of the word includes the termsorganism, organ.
NATURAL SELECTION - the process of survivalmore adapted individuals, which leads to a predominant increase or decrease in the number of some individualsbey in populations compared to others. Home movepowerevolution. In the processartificial selection human selection of plant varieties or animal breeds. The main methods of plant breeding arehybridization andselection. The selection may bemass, at coa group of individuals with desired traits is singled out as a torus, and ~individual, in which individual individuals are selectedwith the required properties. The offspring of one self-pollinatethe current individual is calledclean line. Driving selection - is called the selection of some deviations from the establishednorms of signs leading to its change through the development of newsigns. Selection in favor of the established norm of the traitwhen all noticeable deviations from it are eliminated, they are calledstabilizing.
PALEO... (palaios - ancient, gr.) - part of complexwords, indicating a connection with antiquity.
PALEONTOLOGY - the science of ancient organismsconditions of their life and burial.
PARTHENOGENESIS (parthenos - virgin, genesis -origin, birth, gr.) - virgin reproduction,a form of sexual reproduction in which the femalesex cells develop without fertilization.
PEPTIDE BOND - view amide bond (HN-CO),that occurs betweenamino acids in proteins. It's soydynamism is calledpeptide.
pinocytosis (pinot - drink, absorb, cytos - cellka, gr.) - active absorption by the cell from the surroundingliquid environment, as a result of which in the cytoplasm of the cell aboutblisters containing fluid.
PLASMA (plasma - fashioned, decorated, gr.) -in biology, the liquid or gel-like part of biologicalstructures - blood, lymph, cells(cytoplasm) etc. Zhidwhat part of the bloodblood plasma.
PLASTIDS (created, gr.) - plant organellesnoah cells. Distinguish by colorchloroplasts (green) chromoplasts (red), leucoplasts (colorless)
PLEURA (pleura - rib, side, side, gr.) - serosaa membrane that lines part of the common body cavity onterrestrial vertebrates, with which the lungs are enclosed, andgoing to the lungs. The pleura also refers to the lateralpart of the chest of a number of invertebrates.
PLACENTA (plaktus - flat cake, gr.) - a child's place, the organ through which, during the period of intrauterine development, waspsthere is communication and metabolism between organisms materi and child.
POLY... (shelf - numerous, extensive, gr.) -part of compound words indicating a multitude, varietycomposition of something. For example,polyhybrid cross nie.
POLYPLOIDY (poly - a lot, ploos - fold,eidos - view,gr.)- the presence in the cells of an increased numberchromosomes multiple of haploid (triploid - 3 timesny,tetraploid - 4 times).
POLYRIBOSOME (POLYSOMY) - ribo complexcatfish connected by an information moleculeRNA involved inprotein biosynthesis.
POLYSACCHARIDES - high molecular weight carbohydrates,whose molecules are built from monosaccharide residues,connected by glycosidic bonds and forming linear or branched chains. For example,cellulose.
PRODUCERS (producer - producing, creatingshchy) - autotrophic organisms that create with the helpphotosynthesis or chemosynthesis organic matter fromorganic.
PROTO... (protos - the first,gr.)- part of complex words,indicating primacy, origin or antecedenta stage in the development of something. For example,protozoa - prosthe coolest animals.
PROTOPLASM (proto and plasma - molded, sphorusmined, gr.) - the contents of a living cell - its cytoplasma and nucleus.
PSEUDO... (pseidos - lie, gr.) - part of complexwords denoting false, imaginary, apparent, sometimes fake. For example,pseudopodia - false legs (pullsvayutsya for a while at the amoeba).
POPULATION (populus - population, lat.) - anycapable of self-reproduction of a set of individuals of onespecies, more or less isolated in space and timemeni from other similar aggregates of the same species.
POST-EMBRIONAL DEVELOPMENT - (post - after, later, lat., embryo - embryo, gr.) - period of developmentanimal organisms after release from shells orbirth to maturity.
PROGRESS (progressus - moving forward, lat.) - inliving nature, improvement and complication of the organizationmov in the process of evolution. stands outbiological pro gress - the result of the success of this group in the struggle for existence (increase in numbers, expansion of the range, racesfall into subordinate systematic categories} andmorphophysiological progress - evolution of organismsways of complication and improvement of their organization.
PULSE (pulus - blow, push, lat.) - periodicsome, jerky expansion of the walls of arteries, synchronouswith heartbeats.
RACE (races - genus, breed, fr.) - in biology - grouporganisms, isolated in ecological or geographicin terms of chess. Individuals of a race have similar features(morphological, physiological or ecological),covered by a distribution area that is part of the rangespecies or subspecies. Humanity forms three great races:equatorial (Negroid or Negroid-Australoidnew - black), Eurasian (Europoid - white) andAsian-American (Mongoloid - yellow).
IRRITABILITY - the ability of living cells, tissueher or the whole organism to respond to external or internalearly impacts(irritants).
RE... (lat.) - a prefix denoting ("repeated, inrenewable, reproducible action", "action againstpositive (reverse) to what is expressed by the main partwords" "resistance". For example,recombination (re... andcombinatio- compound, lat.) - in genetics - redistributiondegeneration of the genetic material of the parents in the offspring, whichswarm leads to hereditary combinative variabilityliving organisms.
REGENERATION (regeneratio - rebirth, lat.) -restoration by the body of the lost part of the body.
REGRESSION (regressus -. return, movement back,lat.) - in biology - the simplification of organisms in the process
evolution.
REDUCTION (reductio - abduction back, returnnie, restoration) - in biology - simplification of the structure,reduction in size or complete loss of a tissue or cell in.progress of phylogenesis. Reduction division - widely usedis the name of one of the two divisions of meiosis, in whichRum is the divergence of homologous chromosomes.
DNA REDUPLICATION (reduplication - movement,date) - doubling of DNA molecules by completing the matrixlongitudinal halves" of the DNA molecule due to the lack ofgenerating complementary free nucleotides. PossibleRNA reduplication, chromosome reduplication (doubling xromosom).
REDUCERS (reducer, reducer - returning,restoring, lat.) - organisms, mainly"bacteria and fungi, in the course of life transformingorganic residues in organic matter.
RESISTANCE (resisteo - resist,lat.) - the resistance of the body, immunity to anyor agents (for example, to poisons).
RECAPITULATION (recapitulation - repetition of skaknown or done, lat.) - repetition in the course of an individualdual development of the organism(ontogeny) characteristicsigns of adult stages of distant ancestors
RECOMBINATION (re and combination - connection,lat.) - in genetics - the redistribution of the genetic materialrial of parents in offspring that leads to inheritancevenouscombinative variability living organisms.
RELIC (relictum - remnant, lat.) - species (or othertaxa) of plants or animals preserved from thedisappeared, widespread in the past floras andfauna. Sometimes relics are understood to be preserved frompast biocenoses or ecosystems. Allocate tertiary(sequoia), glacial (dwarf birch) and other typesrelics.
REFLEX (reflexum - turning back, reflection,lat.) - the body's response to changes in the externalor internal environment occurring through the nervous systemin response to receptor stimulation. Distinguishunconditional reflexes (congenital, evolutionarily developed andinherited) andconditioned reflexes (purchaseshadowy in individual life).
RECENT (recenter - recently, just, lat.) - a term used to refer to modern floras andfauna, as opposed to extinct(fossil organisms we, i.e. fossils).
RECEPTOR (reciper - receive, receptor - acceptwaving, lat.) - special formations in animals aa person who perceives and transforms irritationfrom the external and internal environment into the specific activity of the nervous system. Allocatemechanoreceptors (for examplemeasures, in the organs of hearing),chemoreceptors (taste, smell)photoreceptors (vision),thermoreceptors (skin) etc.
RECESSIVE (recessus - retreat, removal "lat,) is one of the forms of phenotypic manifestation of a gene.G. Mendel when crossing individuals that differ in opto a certain trait, found that in hybrids of the firstgeneration one of the parental traits disappears(recess gray), and the other appears(dominant).
RIBOSOME (ribes - flow and soma - body, lat.) -cell organelles in the form of spherical granules, attachednye to intracellular biological membranes orlying in the cytoplasm, consist of RNA and proteins,perform protein biosynthesis.
RISO... (riza - root, gr.) - part of compound words associated with the root.rhizosphere - part of the soil adjacentshcha to the root.
RHIZOIDS - filamentous formations in mosses, overgrowthkov ferns, lichens, some algae and fungi, performing the function of roots.
RNA - ribonucleic acid, high molecular weightorganic compound, formednucleotides in kotory includes nitrogenous bases(adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil) and carbohydrate componentribose (in DNA instead of cheerscila entersthymine, and instead of ribose -deoxyribose). RNAparticipates in the implementation of genetic information. DifferenceThere are three main types of RNA -matrix (information nye), transport and ribosomal.
RUDIMENTS (rudimentum - germ, fundamental principle,lat.)(rudimentary organs) - simplified, underdevelopedcompared with homologous structures of ancestral andclose forms that have lost their main meaning in the organizationme phylogenesis, structure. For example, a person has a tailvertebrae, appendix, ear muscles, etc.
SAPRO... (sapros - rotten, gr.) - part of compound words,denoting "rotten".
SAPROPHAG - animals that feed on decayingremains of other animals.Saprophyte - bacteria, fungi andplants that feed on dead organic matterorganisms and animal secretions.Saprobicity - displaythe degree of water pollution (estimated by the organizationmothers living in polluted water -saprobionts, orsaprobes).
SYNTHESIS MATRIX - the type of reaction in whichnew protein molecules are synthesized in strict accordance with the plan laid down in the structure of existing moleculesDNA. These reactions provide precise specificity.which sequence of monomers in the synthesized polymeasures.
SYMBIOSIS (symbiosis - cohabitation,gr.)- type ofrelationships between organisms of different systematic groups:coexistence, mutually beneficial (often obligatoryintimate cohabitation of individuals of two or more species (e.g.mer, hermit crab and sea anemone).
SOMA (soma - body, gr.) 1. Trunk, body; 2. Aggregateness of all cells of the body, with the exception of reproductivecells.Somatic - associated with the body (as opposed tofrom the psyche).
SPERM - seed (gr.).
SPERMAGENESIS - the formation of male germ cells (spermatozoa).
WALL... (stenos - narrow, limited, gr.) - partcompound words denoting narrow intervals of something, limitedness. For example,stenotherm - organism, inhabitoperating in narrow temperature ranges,stenophage - organism,feeding on a close (small in diversity) composition of the feed.
STERILIZATION (sterilis - barren, lat.)
Killing Microorganisms with High Themesperaturation, filtration or treatment with poisonous gases, chichemical substances or ionizing radiation;
Depriving organisms of the ability to reproduce.
STRESS (stress - tension, English) - nonspecificcal reaction of the body's tension to any strongaction. The most severe formshock.
SUCCESSION (succession - continuity, inheritedvaniya, lat.) - a consistent change of ecosystems, successionvenously arising in a certain place (for example, onbacteria and algae appear on the stones, then lichensand mosses and some animals, during the formation of the soil appearedhigher plants emerge, etc.).
TAXIS (taxis - location, system, gr.) - rightslow movement of organisms or their organelles under the influenceunilaterally acting stimulus(phototaxis, ter motaxis, chemotaxis, etc.).
TAXON - a group of objects related by common properties and characteristics (species, genus, order, etc.).d.).
TELOPHASE (telos - end and phase, gr.) - concludethe body phase of cell division and its nucleus.
THERIOLOGY (therion - beast and logos - doctrine,gr.)the branch of zoology that studies mammals.
THERMO... (thermo - heat, gr.) - part of compound words,heat related.
THERMOFIL organisms that prefer high temperatures.
TOX... (toxon - poison, gr.) - part of compound words, convoybeginning "poisonous", "toxic".
TOXICOSIS - the state of the body, due to the lengthpoisoning or toxemia (the presence of toxins in the blood).
TRANSCRIPTION (transcriptio - rewriting,lat.) - the first stage of the implementation of genetic informationin the cell, resulting in the biosynthesis of RNA on corelevant regions of the DNA template. Atreverse transcriptions DNA is synthesized into RNA.
BROADCAST (translatio - transfer, translation,lat.) - in genetics - the translation of genetic information intothe structure of specific proteins as a result of the interaction of DNA molecules and messenger RNA with the participation of transfer RNA and ribosomes.
TRANSPIRATION (trans - through and spiro - I breathe, I inhale, lat.) - the evaporation of water by plants, mainlyleaves.
TROPE... (tropos - turn, direction) - part of thewords denoting "orientation of action", "spesob or mode of action.
TROPISM - direction of growth or movement of the abdomenleg, plant or individual cell relative to the stimulusinhabitant (light, chemical, etc.).
TROP... (tropho - nutrition, food, gr.) - part of complexwords related to nutrition, growth, feeding.Tro physical connections - forms of communication between populations in biocenosis, manifested in the nutrition of individuals of the same species forcounting living individuals of another species, their metabolic products or their dead remains.
TROPHIC CHAINS (FOOD CHAINS) - mutualrelationships between organisms during the transfer of food energyfrom its source - a green plant through a number of organisms, occurring by eating some organismsgimi from higher trophic levels.
FOOD NETWORK - Interlacing of food goals in a complex natural community.
TURGOR (turgere - to be swollen, full,lat.) - the elasticity of plant cells, tissues and organs due to the pressure of the contents of the cells on their elasticwalls.
FAGO... (phagos - devouring, gr.) - part of complexwords denoting: 1) “related to eating”, 2) “relative toattached to a bacteriophage.
PHAGOCYTE (fago and kitos - vessel, cell) - cellmulticellular animals, capable of capturing and transferringboil foreign bodies, in particular microbes.Fago cytosis - active capture and absorption of living cells and notliving particles by unicellular organisms or specialcells - phagocytes. One of the defensive reactionsnisms, mainly in inflammatory processes.The phenomenon of phagocytosis was discovered by I. I. Mechnikov (1883G.)
FAUNA (on Greek mythology Fauna - mythicalthe wife of the Faun - the god of forests, fields, the patron of herds) - an evolutionarily established set of all types of animals,living in this area.
PHENOTYPE (fen and topos - image, imprint) - owlthe totality of all the properties and characteristics of an individual on a certainpart of the stage of development, formed as a result of mutualinteractions of the genotype with the environment.
ENZYME (fermentum - leaven)(enzyme) - biolochemical catalyst by chemical nature - protein, obyanaturally present in all cells of a living organismma. Accelerates the transformation of substances (biochemical reactions).
PHYSIOLOGY (nature, natural properties and logos - doctrine) - medical and biological science of lifewhole organism, individual systems, organs, tissues,cells and regulation of physiological reactions.
PHYLOGENESIS (fino - I reveal and tipos - imprint,gr.) - the historical development of the world of living organisms. Thisprocess studies sciencephylogenetics.
PHYTO... (phyton - plant, gr.) - part of compound words,denoting "pertaining to plants" or "to the science of plants".
PHYTOPLANKTON - collection of plants , I dwellin the water column, together withzooplankton (setwater column animals).
FLORA (in Roman mythology, Flora is the goddess of flowersand spring) - a historically established set of speciesplants living or living in the past.
A PHOTO... (photos - light, gr.) - an integral part of the complexwords, indicating the attitude to light, to influenceview of the world.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS - transformation of radiant energy of the Sun into energy by green plants and photosynthetic microorganisms chemical bonds organic substances.Occurs with the participation of absorbing lightpigments, formerde allchlorophyll. photoperiodism (photo and periodos -bypass, circulation, gr.) - the body's reactions to the changeday and night, manifested in fluctuations in the intensity of phibiological processes.Photolysis - decomposition processsubstances under the influence of light.
CHEMO... ((al) chemia - the art of fusion of metals) - an integral part of compound words, indicating relativesolution to chemistry, chemical elements and compounds.
CHEMORECEPTOR - sensitive nerve endingsniya, perceiving chemical irritations.Chemosin mez - the process of formation by certain microorganisms,organic substances from carbon dioxide due to the energy obtained from the oxidation of inorganic compounds (withoutparticipation of solar energy).
CHLOROPLAST (chloros - green and plastos - moldedlazy, created) - plant cell organelles,intracellularlyraceslaid plastids, in whichphotosynthesis takes place. They are green in color due todue to the presence in them of the main pigment of photosynthesis -chlorophyll.
CHROMIUM... (chroma, chromatos - color, skin color, colorka) - an integral part of compound words, denoting "relativelyradiant to color."
CHROMATIDS (chromium and eidos - similar) - longitudinalnew halves of chromosomes (one of two nucleotide strands),consisting ofchromoneme. Chromonemes havechromophybe rilla, containing DNA.
CHROMATIN - nucleoprotein cell nucleus, compositionlaying the basis of chromosomes. Good staining on histoloprocessing.
CHROMOPLAST - plastid with weakly expressed internalearly structure, is formed as a derivative of chloroplastcom, less often leukoplasts. Contains predominantlypigments - carotenoids (for example, during maturationrose hips, peppers, tomatoes, flower petals). intensivelysynthesized during the destruction of chloroplasts.
CHROMOSOME (chroma and soma - body, gr.) - self-propelledproduced structural element of the cell nucleus, containssqueezing DNA, which contains the genetic (hereditary)venous) information.
CENTER... (centrum - the center of the circle, lat.) - compositepart of words indicating: relation to the center, “locatedfemale in the center.
CENTRIOLS - chromosome bodies of a cylindrical shape, forming a cell center, diverging towards the fieldthe cell itself and those reproducing during its division, determineddetermine the orientation of the spindle. contain DNA and are capable ofself-reproduction.
CENTROMERES (centro and meros - part, gr.) - partchromosome current that holds two strands together - chromatidy. During cell division, centromeres direct the movement of chromosomes towards the poles of the cell.
POWER CHAINS (see trophic chains).
CYTO... (citus - vessel, mitos - emptiness, gr.) - sosthe taval part of compound words denoting "pertaining tocell", "cellular".
CYTOPLASM (cyto and plasma are something formed,fashioned) - the extranuclear part of the protoplasm of living cellsout organisms.Cytology - cell science that studiesstructure, development and functions of animal and plant cellscurrent.
PURE LINES - a group of individuals obtained in rethe result of long-term inbreeding with the most homogeneoussequence.
EVOLUTION (evolution - deployment, lat.) - inbiology complex, theoretical provisions on mechanisms,driving factors and patterns of development of livingchildbirth, irreversible and directed development of wildlife.
EURO... (euros - wide, gr.) - part of compound words denoting "wide", "extensive", "multifaceted","various".eurybiont - an organism that livespersonal, dramatically different environmental conditions. depending onty from factors distinguisheuryterm (temperature),euryphage (food),eurygad (salinity of the environment), etc.
ECOLOGY (oikos - house, dwelling, homeland and logos -teaching,gr.)the science of the relationship of organisms with their environmentliving environment. AT last years the boundaries of ecology meansignificantly expanded, and in addition tobioecology include questionsnature conservation, nature management, toxicology, geochemistry, hydrochemistry and other sciences.
ECOLOGICAL NICHE - place occupied by the assspecies evolution in the biocenosis.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID (Elton pyramid) - graphic models (usually in the form of triangles) reflecting the number of individuals(pyramid of numbers), the amount of their biomass(biomass pyramid) or energy contained in themgyi(pyramid of energies) at each trophic (food) level and indicating a regular decrease in allindicators with an increase in the trophic level (produceryou, consumers of the 1st order, consumers of the 2nd order, etc.d.).Developed by C. Elton (1927).
ECT... (ectos - outside, outside, gr.) - the first compoundpart of compound words corresponding in meaning to words"external", "external".
ECTODERM (ecto and dermis - skin, gr.) - 1. Outsidegerm layer of a multicellular animal embryonyh. Animal integuments develop from it, the outer skinyears of invertebrates, etc. 2. The outer layer of two-layeranimals - sponges, coelenterates.
EMBRYOLOGY (embryo - embryo and logos - studynie, gr.) - a scientific discipline that studies the germinal(embryonic) development of the organism.
EMOTION (emotion, fr., from lat, emovere - to excite,worry) - subjective reaction: mental experienceanxiety, emotional excitement (anger, fear, timidity, etc.), arisingin humans or animals due to exposure tothem external and internal stimuli.
END... (endo ..., endo - inside, gr.) - componentcompound words denoting "inside", "internal".Endo dermis (endo and dermis - skin) - 1) internal embryoembryonic leaf of multicellular animals(in gastrula); 2) the inner layer of the wall of two-layer animals - intestinesnocavitary and sponges.
ENDOSPERM (endon - inside and sperm - seed) - forgrazing triploid tissue of plant seeds, in which fromprovide the nutrients necessary fordevelopment of the embryo (well developed in cereals, umbelliferous, pastelnew and other plants).
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM - channel network, truebarrels, vesicles located inside the cytoplasm.
ENDEMIC (endemos - local, gr.) - local species(and another systematic category - genus, family andetc.), living only in this area.
EPI... (epi - on, over, with, after, gr.) - part of the complexwords, which determines being on top of something, in front of or near something (epigraph), following something, massowl distribution(epidemic - epi and demos - people,gr.).
EPIDERMIS (epi and dermis - skin, gr.) - superficiallythick layer of the skin of vertebrates, including humans,or outer integumentary tissue of higherpacshadows.
erythrocytes (erythros - red and citus - cell,gr.) - red blood cells of vertebrates and someinvertebrate animals.
EPHEMEROID (ephemeros - one-day and eidos - species, gr.) - a perennial plant characterized by short durationliving period of flowering and. annual vegetation. Naimore typical for arid regions (steppes, emptyneither).
EUKARYOTES (eu - good, karyon - core and tere -shell, gr.) - unicellular and multicellular growbody and animal organisms whose cells, unlikedifferentiated from prokaryotic cells into cytoplasm andlimitedkaryolemma nucleus. Opposedabout karyotes.
Toolkit
BRIEF GLOSSARY OF BIOLOGICAL TERMS
for students and college teachers
Compiled by:
teacher of biology and ecology
O.Yu.Nesvetaeva
Voronezh State Industrial and Technological College
Notes
autolysis, autolysis, self-digestion of tissues, cells or their parts under the action of enzymes in animals, plants and microorganisms.
autotrophic organisms, autotrophs, organisms that use carbon dioxide as the only or main source of carbon to build their body and have both an enzyme system for carbon dioxide assimilation and the ability to synthesize all cell components. Autotrophic organisms include terrestrial green plants, algae, phototrophic bacteria capable of photosynthesis, as well as some bacteria that use the oxidation of inorganic substances - chemoautotrophs.
adenosine diphosphate, ADP, a nucleotide consisting of adenine, ribose, and two phosphoric acid residues. Being a phosphoryl group acceptor in the processes of oxidative and photosynthetic phosphorylation, as well as phosphorylation at the substrate level and a biochemical precursor of ATP - a universal energy accumulator, adenosine diphosphate plays an important role in the energy of a living cell.
adenosine monophosphate, AMP, adenylic acid, a nucleotide consisting of adenine, ribose and one phosphoric acid residue. In the body, adenine monophosphate is found in the composition of RNA, coenzymes and in free form.
adenosine triphosphate, ATP, adenylpyrophosphoric acid, a nucleotide containing adenine, ribose, and three phosphoric acid residues; universal carrier and main accumulator of chemical energy in living cells, released during the transfer of electrons in the respiratory chain after the oxidative breakdown of organic substances.
Aleurone grains(from the Greek aleuron - flour), grains of storage protein in the cells of the storage tissues of seeds of legumes, buckwheat, cereals and other plants. They occur as amorphous or crystalline deposits (from 0.2 to 20 microns) of various shapes and structures. They are formed during seed maturation from drying vacuoles and are surrounded by an elementary tonoplast membrane. Large complex aleurone grains consist of a protein crystalloid and a non-protein part (phytin), some of them contain calcium oxalate crystals. During seed germination, aleurone grains swell and undergo enzymatic cleavage, the products of which are used by the growing parts of the embryo.
allele(from the Greek allelon - each other, mutually), allelomorph, one of the possible structural states of a gene. Any change in the structure of a gene as a result of mutations or due to intragenic recombinations in heterozygotes for two mutant alleles leads to the appearance of new alleles of this gene (the number of alleles of each gene is practically incalculable). The term "allele" was proposed by W. Johansen (1909). Different alleles of the same gene can lead to the same or different phenotypic effects, which was the basis for the concept of multiple allelism.
Amyloplasts(from the Greek amylon - starch and plastos - molded), plastids (from the group of leukoplasts) of a plant cell that synthesize and accumulate starch.
amino acids, organic (carboxylic) acids containing, as a rule, one or two amino groups (-NH 2). About twenty amino acids are usually involved in the construction of protein molecules. The specific sequence of alternation of amino acids in peptide chains, determined by the genetic code, determines the primary structure of the protein.
Amitosis, direct division of the interphase nucleus by constriction without the formation of chromosomes, outside the mitotic cycle. Amitosis can be accompanied by cell division, as well as limited to nuclear division without division of the cytoplasm, which leads to the formation of bi- and multinuclear cells. Amitosis occurs in various tissues, in specialized cells doomed to death.
Anabolism(from the Greek anabole - rise), assimilation, a set of chemical processes in a living organism aimed at the formation and renewal of the structural parts of cells and tissues. Opposite to catabolism (dissimilation), it consists in the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones with the accumulation of energy. The energy required for biosynthesis (mainly in the form of ATP) is supplied by catabolic reactions of biological oxidation. Very intense anabolism occurs during the growth period: in animals - at a young age, in plants - during the growing season. The most important process of anabolism, which has planetary significance, is photosynthesis.
Anticodon, a section of a transfer RNA molecule, consisting of three nucleotides and recognizing the corresponding section of three nucleotides (codon) in the messenger RNA molecule, with which it complementarily interacts. The specific codon-anticodon interaction that occurs on ribosomes during translation ensures the correct arrangement of amino acids in the synthesized polypeptide chain.
outbreeding(from English out- outside and breeding - breeding), crossing or a system of crossing unrelated forms of the same species. On the basis of outbreeding, heterotic forms are obtained by carrying out interline and interbreed (intervarietal) crosses. Outbreeding is the opposite of inbreeding.
autosomes, all chromosomes in the cells of dioecious animals, plants and fungi, with the exception of sex chromosomes.
acidophilia, ability cell structures stained with acidic dyes (eosomine, acid fuchsin, picric acid, etc.) due to the basic (alkaline) properties of coloring structures.
aerobic organisms, aerobes (from the Greek aer - air and bios - life), organisms that can live and develop only in the presence of free oxygen in the environment, which they use as an oxidizing agent. Aerobic organisms include all plants, most protozoa and multicellular animals, almost all fungi, i.e. the vast majority of known species of living beings.
basal body, kinetosome (corpusculum basale), an intracellular eukaryotic structure that lies at the base of cilia and flagella and serves as a support for them. The ultrastructure of the basal bodies is similar to that of the centrioles.
Basophilia, the ability of cellular structures to stain with basic (alkaline) dyes (azure, pyronin, etc.), due to acid properties staining components of the cell, mainly RNA. An increase in cell basophilia usually indicates an intensive protein synthesis taking place in it. Basophilia is characteristic of growing, regenerating, tumor tissues.
basophils, cells containing granular structures in protoplasm stained with basic dyes. The term "basophils" refers to one of the types of granular leukocytes (granulocytes) of the blood (normally, basophils in humans make up 0.5-1% of all leukocytes), as well as one of the types of cells of the anterior pituitary gland.
Backcross(from English back - back, back and cross - crossing), backcrossing, crossing a hybrid of the first generation with one of the parental forms or a form similar to it in genotype.
Squirrels, proteins, high molecular weight organic compounds built from amino acid residues. They play a primary role in life, performing numerous functions in their structure, development and metabolism. The molecular weight of proteins is from about 5000 to many millions. The infinite variety of protein molecules (as a rule, 20 a-L-amino acids are included in proteins) due to the different sequence of amino acid residues and the length of the polypeptide chain determines the differences in their spatial structure, chemical and physical properties. Depending on the shape of the protein molecule, fibrillar and globular proteins are distinguished, from the function they perform - structural, catalytic (enzymes), transport (hemoglobin, ceruloplasmin), regulatory (some hormones), protective (antibodies, toxins), etc .; from the composition - simple proteins (proteins, consist only of amino acids) and complex (proteins, which, along with amino acids, include carbohydrates - glycoproteins, lipids - lipoproteins, nucleic acids - nucleoproteins, metals - metalloproteins, etc.); depending on solubility in water, solutions of neutral salts, alkalis, acids and organic solvents - albumins, globulins, glutelins, histones, protamines, prolamins. The biological activity of proteins is due to their unusually flexible, plastic and, at the same time, strictly ordered structure, which makes it possible to solve the problems of recognition at the molecular level, as well as to exercise subtle regulatory influences. There are the following levels of structural organization of proteins: primary structure (sequence of amino acid residues in the polypeptide chain); secondary (folding of the polypeptide chain into a-helical sections and structural formations); tertiary (three-dimensional spatial packing of the polypeptide chain) and quaternary (association of several separate polypeptide chains into a single structure). The primary structure of the protein is the most stable, the rest are easily destroyed by an increase in temperature, a sharp change in the pH of the medium, and other influences. This disruption is called denaturation and is usually accompanied by loss of biological properties. The primary structure of the protein determines the secondary and tertiary, i.e. self-assembly of a protein molecule. Proteins in the cells of organisms are constantly updated. The need for their constant renewal underlies the metabolism. The decisive role in protein biosynthesis belongs to nucleic acids. Proteins are the primary products of genes. The amino acid sequence in proteins reflects the nucleotide sequence in nucleic acids.
Bivalent(from the Latin bi-, in compound words - double, double and valent - strong), a pair of homologous chromosomes connected (conjugating) to each other in meiosis. It is formed at the zygotene stage and persists until the anaphase of the first division. In the bivalent, X-shaped figures are formed between the chromosomes - chiasmata, which hold the chromosomes in the complex. The number of bivalents is usually equal to the haploid number of chromosomes.
Bio…(from the Greek bios - life), part of compound words, corresponding in meaning to the words "life", "living organism" (biography, hydrobios) or the word "biological" (biocatalysis, biophysics).
biogenetic law, a generalization in the field of the relationship between ontogenesis and phylogenesis of organisms, established by F. Müller (1864) and formulated by E. Haeckel (1866): the ontogeny of any organism is a brief and concise repetition (recapitulation) of the phylogenesis of a given species.
Biogenic elements, chemical elements that are constantly included in the composition of organisms and necessary for them to live. Living cells usually contain traces of almost all chemical elements present in the environment, but about 20 are necessary for life. The most important biogenic elements are oxygen (about 70% of the mass of organisms), carbon (18%), hydrogen (10%), nitrogen, potassium, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sulfur , chlorine, sodium. These so-called universal biogenic elements are present in the cells of all organisms. Some biogenic elements are important only for certain groups of living beings (for example, boron and other biogenic elements are necessary for plants, vanadium for ascidians, etc.).
biological membranes(Latin membrana - skin, membrane, membrane), structures that limit cells (cellular or plasma membranes) and intracellular organelles (membranes of mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, etc.). They contain lipids, proteins, heterogeneous macromolecules (glycoproteins, glycolipids) and, depending on the function performed, numerous minor components (coenzymes, nucleic acids, amino acids, carotenoids, inorganic ions, etc.). The main functions of biological membranes are barrier, transport, regulatory and catalytic.
Fermentation, anaerobic enzymatic redox process of transformation of organic substances, through which organisms obtain the energy necessary for life. Compared to processes taking place in the presence of oxygen, fermentation is an evolutionarily earlier and energetically less favorable form of extracting energy from nutrients. Animals, plants and many microorganisms are capable of fermentation (some bacteria, microscopic fungi, protozoa grow only due to the energy obtained during fermentation).
Vacuoles(French vacuole from Latin vacuus - empty), cavities in the cytoplasm of animal and plant cells, bounded by a membrane and filled with liquid. In the cytoplasm of protozoa, there are digestive vacuoles containing enzymes and contractile vacuoles that perform the functions of osmoregulation and excretion. Multicellular animals are characterized by digestive and autophagic vacuoles, which are part of the group of secondary lysosomes and contain hydrolytic enzymes.
In plants, vacuoles are derivatives of the endoplasmic reticulum and are surrounded by a semi-permeable membrane - the tonoplast. The entire system of vacuoles of a plant cell is called a vacuum, which in a young cell is represented by a system of tubules and vesicles; as the cell grows and differentiates, they increase and merge into one large central vacuole, which occupies 70-95% of the volume of a mature cell. Vacuole cell sap is an aqueous liquid with a pH of 2-5, contains organic and inorganic salts (phosphates, oxalates, etc.) dissolved in water, sugars, amino acids, proteins, end or toxic metabolic products (tannins, glycosides, alkaloids) some pigments (for example, anthocyanins). Functions of vacuoles: regulation of water-salt metabolism, maintenance of turgor pressure in the cell, accumulation of low-molecular water-soluble metabolites, reserve substances and elimination of toxic substances from metabolism.
Spindle of division, achromatin spindle, a system of microtubules in a dividing cell, which ensures the divergence of chromosomes in mitosis and meiosis. The spindle is formed in prometaphase and disintegrates in telophase.
Cell inclusions, components of the cytoplasm, which are deposits of substances temporarily removed from metabolism or its final products. The specificity of cell inclusions is associated with the specialization of the corresponding cells, tissues and organs. The most common trophic inclusions of cells are drops of fat, clumps of glycogen, yolk in eggs. In plant inclusion cells, the cells are mainly represented by starch and aleurone grains and lipid droplets. Cell inclusions also include secretory granules in the glandular cells of animals, crystals of some salts (mainly calcium oxalates) in plant cells. A special type of cell inclusions - residual bodies - products of the activity of lysosomes.
gas exchange, a set of processes of gas exchange between the body and the environment; consists in the consumption of oxygen by the body, the release of carbon dioxide, a small amount of other gaseous substances and water vapor. biological significance gas exchange is determined by its direct participation in metabolism, the conversion of the chemical energy of digested nutrient products into the energy necessary for the life of the body.
Gamete(from the Greek gamete - wife, gametes - husband), sex cell, reproductive cell of animals and plants. The gamete ensures the transmission of hereditary information from parents to offspring. The gamete has a haploid set of chromosomes, which is provided by a complex process of gametogenesis. Two gametes, merging during fertilization, form a zygote with a diploid set of chromosomes, which gives rise to a new organism.
Gametogenesis development of sex cells (gametes).
gametophyte, sexual generation in the life cycle of plants developing with alternation of generations. It is formed from a spore, has a haploid set of chromosomes; produces gametes either in ordinary vegetative cells of the thallus (some algae) or in specialized organs of sexual reproduction - gametangia, oogonia and antheridia (lower plants), archegonia and antheridia (higher plants with the exception of flowering plants).
Haploid(from the Greek haplos - single, simple and eidos - view), an organism (cell, nucleus) with a single (haploid) set of chromosomes, which is denoted by the Latin letter n. In many eukaryotic microorganisms and lower plants, the haploid normally represents one of the stages of the life cycle (haplophase, gametophyte), and in some species of arthropods, males are haploid, developing from unfertilized or fertilized eggs, but in which one of the haploid sets of chromosomes is eliminated. In most animals (and humans) only germ cells are haploid.
Haplont(from the Greek haplos - single, simple and on - being), an organism in which all cells contain a haploid set of chromosomes, and only the zygote is diploid. Some protozoa (eg coccidia), fungi (oomycetes), many green algae.
hemicelluloses, a group of polysaccharides of higher plants that, together with cellulose, make up the cell wall.
Gene(from the Greek genos - genus, origin), hereditary factor, functionally indivisible unit of genetic material; a section of a DNA molecule (in some viruses, RNA) that encodes the primary structure of a polypeptide, transport and ribosomal RNA molecules, or interacts with a regulatory protein. The totality of the genes of a given cell or organism makes up its genotype. The existence of hereditary discrete factors in germ cells was hypothetically postulated by G. Mendel in 1865 and in 1909. V. Johansen called them genes. Further ideas about genes are associated with the development of the chromosome theory of heredity.
…genesis(from the Greek genesis - origin, occurrence), part of compound words meaning origin, the process of formation, for example, ontogenesis, oogenesis.
genetic information, information about the properties of the organism, which is inherited. Genetic information is recorded by the sequence of nucleotides of nucleic acid molecules (DNA, in some viruses also RNA). Contains information about the structure of all (about 10,000) enzymes, structural proteins and RNA of the cell, as well as the regulation of their synthesis. Various enzymatic complexes of the cell read the genetic information.
Genetic map of the chromosome, scheme of mutual arrangement of genes in the same linkage group. To compile a genetic map of chromosomes, it is necessary to identify many mutant genes and carry out numerous crosses. The distance between genes on the genetic map of chromosomes is determined by the frequency of crossing over between them. The distance unit on the genetic map of the chromosomes of meiotically dividing cells is the morganide, which corresponds to 1% crossing over.
Genetic code, a unified system for recording hereditary information in nucleic acid molecules in the form of a sequence of nucleotides, characteristic of living organisms; determines the sequence of inclusion of amino acids in the synthesized polypeptide chain in accordance with the nucleotide sequence of the gene. Implementation of the genetic code in living cells, i.e. the synthesis of the protein encoded by the gene is carried out using two matrix processes - transcription and translation. General properties genetic code: triplet (each amino acid is encoded by a triple of nucleotides); non-overlapping (codons of one gene do not overlap); degeneracy (many amino acid residues are encoded by several codons); uniqueness (each individual codon encodes only one amino acid residue); compactness (there are no “commas” between codons and mRNA - nucleotides that are not included in the codon sequence of a given gene); universality (the genetic code is the same for all living organisms).
genetic material, cell components, the structural and functional unity of which ensures the storage, implementation and transmission of hereditary information during vegetative and sexual reproduction.
Genome(German Genom), a set of genes characteristic of the haploid set of chromosomes of a given type of organism; main haploid set of chromosomes.
Genotype, the genetic (hereditary) constitution of an organism, the totality of all hereditary inclinations of a given cell or organism, including alleles of genes, the nature of their physical linkage in chromosomes and the presence of chromosome structures.
gene pool, the totality of genes that individuals of a given population, group of populations or species have.
Heterogamy, 1) the type of sexual process, male and female gametes that merge during fertilization are different in shape and size. For higher plants and multicellular animals, as well as for some fungi, oogamy is characteristic; according to the ratio of individuals of a number of protozoa that copulate and conjugate during the sexual process, the term "anisogamy" is used. 2) Change in the function of male and female flowers or their location on the plant (as an anomaly).
heterozygote, an organism (cell) in which homologous chromosomes carry different alleles (alternative forms) of a particular gene. Heterozygosity, as a rule, determines the high viability of organisms, their good adaptability to changing environmental conditions, and therefore is widespread in natural populations.
heterotrophic organisms, heterotrophs, organisms that use exogenous organic matter as a source of carbon. As a rule, these same substances serve for them at the same time as a source of energy (organotrophy). Heterotrophic organisms, as opposed to autotrophic organisms, include all animals, fungi, most bacteria, as well as chlorophyll-free land plants and algae.
Heterochromatin, areas of chromatin that are in a condensed (densely packed) state throughout the entire cell cycle. They are intensely stained with nuclear dyes and are clearly visible under a light microscope even during interphase. Heterochromatic regions of chromosomes, as a rule, replicate later than euchromatic regions and are not transcribed; genetically very inert.
Hyaloplasm, the main plasma, the matrix of the cytoplasm, a complex colorless colloidal system in the cell, capable of reversible transitions from sol to gel.
Glycogen, a branched polysaccharide whose molecules are built from a-D-glucose residues. Molecular weight 10 5 -10 7 . The rapidly mobilized energy reserve of many living organisms accumulates in vertebrates mainly in the liver and muscles.
Glycocalyx(from Greek glykys - sweet and Latin callum - thick skin), a glycoprotein complex associated with the outer surface of the plasma membrane in animal cells. Thickness - several tens of nanometers. In the glycocalyx, extracellular digestion occurs, many cell receptors are located in it, and with its help, apparently, cell adhesion occurs.
glycolysis, the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnassus pathway, an enzymatic anaerobic process of non-hydrolytic breakdown of carbohydrates (mainly glucose) to lactic acid. It provides the cell with energy in conditions of insufficient oxygen supply (in obligate anaerobes, glycolysis is the only process that supplies energy), and under aerobic conditions, glycolysis is the stage preceding respiration - the oxidative breakdown of carbohydrates to carbon dioxide and water.
glycolipids, lipids containing a carbohydrate moiety. They are present in the tissues of plants and animals, as well as in some microorganisms. Glycosphingolipids and glycophospholipids are part of biological membranes, play an important role in the phenomena of intercellular adhesion, and have immune properties.
Glycoproteins, glycoproteins, complex proteins containing carbohydrates (from fractions of a percent to 80%). Molecular weight from 15,000 to 1,000,000. Present in all tissues of animals, plants and microorganisms. Glycoproteins, which are part of the cell membrane, are involved in the ion exchange of the cell, immunological reactions, in tissue differentiation, intercellular adhesion phenomena, etc.
globular proteins, proteins whose polypeptide chains are folded into compact spherical or elliptical structures (globules). The most important representatives of globular proteins are albumins, globulins, protamines, histones, prolamins, glutelins. Unlike fibrillar proteins, which mainly play a supporting or protective role in the body, many globular proteins perform dynamic functions. Globular proteins include almost all known enzymes, antibodies, some hormones, and many transport proteins.
Glucose, grape sugar, one of the most common monosaccharides of the hexose group, the most important source of energy in living cells.
Homogamety, a characteristic of an organism (or group of organisms) that has a pair or several pairs of homologous sex chromosomes in the chromosome set and, as a result, form gametes that are identical in chromosome set. The sex represented by such individuals is called homogametic. In mammals, fish and some plant species (hemp, hops, sorrel), homogamety is characteristic of the female, and in birds, butterflies and some types of strawberries - for the male.
Homozygote, a diploid or polyploid cell (individual), whose homologous chromosomes carry identical alleles of a particular gene.
homologous chromosomes, contain the same set of genes, are similar in morphological features, conjugate in the prophase of meiosis. In a diploid set of chromosomes, each pair of chromosomes is represented by two homologous chromosomes, which can differ in the alleles of the genes they contain and exchange sites in the process of crossing over.
Gram-positive bacteria prokaryotes whose cells stain positively according to the Gram method (they are able to bind the main dyes - methylene blue, gentian violet, etc., and after treatment with iodine, then alcohol or acetone, retain the iodine-dye complex). In modern literature, gram-positive bacteria include bacteria of the Firmicutes department with the so-called gram-positive type of cell wall structure. Gram-positive bacteria are characterized by: sensitivity to certain antibiotics (not acting on gram-negative bacteria), some features of the composition and structure of the membrane apparatus, the composition of ribosomal proteins, RNA polymerase, the ability to form endospores, true mycelium, and other properties.
deoxyribonucleic acids, DNA, nucleic acids containing deoxyribose as a carbohydrate component, and adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T) as nitrogen bases. They are present in the cells of any organism, and are also part of the DNA molecule. The sequence of nucleotides in an unbranched polynucleotide chain is strictly individual and specific for each natural DNA and represents a code form for recording biological information (genetic code).
Division, a form of reproduction of some organisms and many cells that make up the body of multicellular organisms.
Denaturation(from the Latin de- prefix, meaning removal, loss, and natura - natural properties), the loss of the natural (native) configuration of molecules of proteins, nucleic acids and other biopolymers as a result of heating, chemical treatment, etc. due to the rupture of non-covalent (weak) bonds in biopolymer molecules (weak bonds maintain the spatial structure of biopolymers). Usually accompanied by a loss of biological activity - enzymatic, hormonal, etc. It can be complete and partial, reversible and irreversible. Denaturation does not violate strong covalent chemical bonds, but due to the unfolding of the globular structure, it makes the radicals inside the molecule accessible to solvents and chemical reagents. In particular, denaturation facilitates the action of proteolytic enzymes, giving them access to all parts of the protein molecule. The reverse process is called renaturation.
differentiation, the emergence of differences between homogeneous cells and tissues, their changes in the course of the development of an individual, leading to the formation of specialized cells, organs and tissues.
Idioblasts(from the Greek idios - special, peculiar), single cells included in a tissue and differing from the cells of this tissue in size, function, shape or internal contents, for example, cells with calcium oxalate crystals or thick-walled supporting cells in the leaf parenchyma (sclereids ).
Idiogram(from the Greek idios - special, peculiar and gramma - drawing, line) a kind of generalized image of the karyotype in compliance with the average quantitative relationships between individual chromosomes and their parts. The idiogram depicts not only the morphological features of chromosomes, but also the features of their primary structure, spiralization, regions of heterochromatin, etc. Comparative analysis idiograms are used in karyosystematics to identify and assess the degree of relatedness of various groups of organisms based on the similarity and difference in their chromosome sets.
isogamy, a type of sexual process in which confluent (copulating) gametes do not differ morphologically, but have different biochemical and physiological properties. Isogamy is widespread in unicellular algae, lower fungi, and many protozoa (radiolarian rhizomes, lower gregarines), but is absent in multicellular organisms.
Interphase(from Latin inter - between and Greek phasis - appearance), in dividing cells part of the cell cycle between two successive mitoses; in cells that have lost the ability to divide (for example, neurons), the period from the last mitosis to cell death. Interphase also includes the temporary exit of the cell from the cycle (resting state). Synthetic processes take place in the interphase, which are associated both with the preparation of cells for division and with the provision of cell differentiation and the performance of specific tissue functions. The duration of interphase, as a rule, is up to 90% of the time of the entire cell cycle. hallmark interphase cells - a despiralized state of chromatin (an exception is the polytene chromosomes of Diptera and some plants, which persist throughout the entire interphase).
Intron(English intron, from intervening sequence - literally an intermediate sequence), a section of a gene (DNA) of eukaryotes, which, as a rule, does not carry genetic information related to the synthesis of the protein encoded by this gene; located between other fragments of the structural gene - exons. The regions corresponding to the intron are present, along with exons, only in the primary transcript, the mRNA precursor (pro-mRNA). They are removed from it by special enzymes during mRNA maturation (exons remain). A structural gene can contain up to several tens of introns (for example, there are 50 of them in the chicken collagen gene) or not contain them at all.
ion channels, supramolecular systems of membranes of a living cell and its organelles, which are of a lipoprotein nature and ensure the selective passage of various ions through the membrane. The most common channels for Na + , K + , Ca 2+ ions; Often, proton-conducting systems of bioenergetic complexes are also referred to as ion channels.
ion pumps, molecular structures built into biological membranes and carrying out the transfer of ions towards a higher electrochemical potential (active transport); function due to the energy of ATP hydrolysis or the energy released during the transfer of electrons through the respiratory chain. Active transport of ions underlies the bioenergetics of the cell, the processes of cellular excitation, absorption, as well as the removal of substances from the cell and the body as a whole.
Karyogamy, the fusion of the nuclei of male and female germ cells in the nucleus of the zygote during fertilization. In the course of karyogamy, the pairing of homologous chromosomes is restored, carrying genetic information from the maternal and paternal gametes.
Mitosis(from karyo-kernel and Greek kinesis - movement), division of the cell nucleus.
Kariology, a section of cytology that studies the cell nucleus, its evolution and individual structures, including sets of chromosomes in different cells - karyotypes (nucleus cytology). Kariology arose in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. after establishing the leading role of the cell nucleus in heredity. The possibility of establishing the degree of relationship between organisms by comparing their karyotypes determined the development of karyosystematics.
Karyoplasm, karyolymph, nuclear juice, the contents of the cell nucleus, in which chromate is immersed, as well as various intranuclear granules. After extraction of chromatin with chemical agents, the so-called intranuclear matrix is preserved in the karyoplasm, consisting of protein fibrils 2-3 nm thick, which form a framework in the nucleus that connects the nucleoli, chromatin, pore complexes of the nuclear membrane and other structures.
Karyosystematics, a branch of systematics that studies the structure of the cell nucleus in different groups of organisms. Karyosystematics developed at the intersection of systematics with cytology and genetics and usually studies the structure and evolution of the chromosome set - the karyotype.
Karyotype, a set of features of a chromosome set (number, size, shape of chromosomes) characteristic of a particular species. The constancy of the karyotype of each species is maintained by the laws of mitosis and meiosis. Changes in the karyotype can occur due to chromosomal and genomic mutations. Usually, the description of the chromosome set is made at the stage of metaphase or late prophase and is accompanied by counting the number of chromosomes, morphs.
