Western policy of Catherine 2. Foreign policy of Catherine II. Russia and the Revolution in France

Catherine II is invariably named among the most important political figures of the 18th century. If we analyze the policy of the ruler in the field of international relations, we can see that the empress focused on establishing friendly relations with other states. Even before the beginning of her reign, Catherine II was in correspondence with the English ruler and representatives of the Austrian ruling elite.

Trying to establish contacts with leading international powers, the ruler tried to elevate the position Russian Empire in the international arena. During the reign of Peter I, the Russian Empire became one of the leading powers in the international arena, but gradually these positions were lost. Catherine the Great set herself the goal of restoring the former greatness to the country in the eyes of other representatives of the political elite.

Despite the fact that the ruler adhered to the position of a peaceful settlement of all international conflicts, several times during her reign, Catherine took part in military operations against weak and oppressed peoples.

What actions of the empress in the field of foreign policy can be called the most important for the entire era of her reign?

It existed from the moment of the unification of Lithuania and Poland in 1569, but by the middle of the 18th century a serious internal crisis had matured there. The reason for this was that the power of the king was fictitious, and decisions were made by a council of representatives of the people, which included members of the Polish and Lithuanian nobility. Moreover, the decision for entry into force had to be unanimous, which happened extremely rarely.

The Catholic majority oppressed the Orthodox and Protestants, which also caused protests.

Catherine contributed to Stanislav Poniatowski's accession to the Polish throne, but this caused discontent and an uprising, which was suppressed by Russian troops.

During this period, there were successful companies in the war with the Ottoman Empire, which began to disturb Prussia and Austria. These countries were afraid of the strengthening of Russia's influence in Poland and therefore put forward a proposal to Catherine on the division of the Commonwealth in exchange for ending the war.

In 1772 there was First section. Russia got the eastern part of Belarus to Minsk and part of the land that was previously part of Oivonia. Austria began to own all of Galicia and its districts, and Prussia gained power over Pomerania (West Prussia). The Polish Council (Sejm) was forced to accept these conditions.

In 1793 he passed Second section The Commonwealth between Russia and Prussia. The Warta and Vistula rivers became the new borders of the lands of Prussia, Torun, Gdansk and Poznan crossed it. Russia took over Central Belarus and Novorossiya (part of modern Ukraine).

After this partition, in 1794, he raised an uprising, calling for the return of the former lands and sovereignty to his country, but it was suppressed by Russian troops under the command. During the uprising, it turned out that part of the Sejm and King Stanislav himself received impressive sums from the Russian Empire.

In 1795 the Third Partition took place. Russia ceded Lithuania, Volhynia, Courland and Western Belarus. Austria took possession of southern Poland with Krakow and Luban. Prussia passed Central Poland with Warsaw.

And in October 1795, a conference of three powers was held, the result of which was the abolition of the sovereignty of the Polish state.

Relations with other countries

Catherine's foreign policy was set to cooperate with other powers.

So in 1764 an alliance was concluded with Prussia. Thanks to this, the Northern System was formed - a union that included Russia, Prussia, England, Denmark, Sweden and the Commonwealth. The actions of the alliance were directed against France and Austria. Cooperation between Russia, England and Prussia continued further. In 1782 an agreement on trade and friendship was signed with Denmark.

She also maintained relations with the khanates from Central Asia.

During the American War of Independence from England in 1780, Russia adopted the "Declaration of Armed Neutrality", which was supported by other countries. According to this declaration, the country's fleet could offer armed resistance when hostile ships appeared.

During the Austro-Prussian War of 1778-1779, the Russian Empire assumed the role of arbiter between the two warring countries. At the Teshensky Congress, Catherine put forward her terms of a truce to restore balance in Europe.

One of the most ambitious plans of the Empress was the Greek project - a joint plan, according to which Austria and Russia were to expel the Turks from Europe and divide their lands. There were also plans to resurrect Byzantine Empire and the proclamation of Konstantin Pavlovich, the grandson of Catherine, as her emperor. On the territory of Moldavia, Bessarabia and Wallachia, the buffer state of Dacia was to arise. And part of the Balkan Peninsula was to pass to Austria. However, the allies could not reach an agreement, so the plan never came to fruition.

According to Catherine, the French Revolution was a serious threat to the monarchical system in other countries, so she became one of the initiators of the anti-French coalition. Although, in fact, Russia did not take an active part in military operations against this country.

Shortly before his death, on the orders of Catherine II, in 1796, the Persian campaign began under the leadership of Valerian Zubov. The plans included the capture of part of the Persian territories and a campaign against Constantinople, but these plans were not implemented due to the death of the empress. However, at the beginning of this company, Zubov still managed to capture part of the territories, including Derbent and Baku.

Summary table of major political events

Date and name of the political event that occurred	Causes of the problem	Consequences for the Russian Empire and the world as a whole
1772 - The first partition of the Commonwealth	After the election of August Poniatowski to the Polish throne, the local population began to express dissatisfaction with Russia's interference in the politics of the Commonwealth. Together, Catherine and Poniatowski managed to suppress the uprising. Concerned about the successes of the Russian Empire in Poland, Austria and Prussia proposed to divide the Commonwealth, and in case of disagreement they threatened to start a war.	The division of the Commonwealth was successful, and the Russian Empire managed to get some of the new lands. Thus, the country included the territory of Belarus up to Minsk, as well as strategically important territories of the Latvian lands.
1793 - The second partition of the Commonwealth	The second partition was only a matter of time, because the noticeably weakened and wounded Polish territory was a "tidbit" for other countries. The decision to divide the country was made at the Grodno Seim	In addition to the previous conquests, the Russian Empire received the rest of the territory of Belarus, together with Minsk, as well as part of the Right-Bank Ukraine.
1795 - The third partition of the Commonwealth.	After the second partition of the country, the Commonwealth actually lost sovereignty and all important parts of its state, so in 1795 the country was declared insolvent. There was also a third section.	Russia received the vast territories of Lithuania, Courland, Western Belarus and Volhynia.
1768-1774 - Russian-Turkish war	The Turkish Sultan himself declared war on the Russian Empire. The pretext was the fact that during the uprising of the Bar Confederation, Russian soldiers, pursuing the Poles, allegedly invaded the territory of the Ottoman Empire	Russia managed to win the war without difficulty thanks to several successful naval battles. After the signing of the peace treaty, the Crimean Khanate became dependent on Russia, and indemnities in the amount of 4.5 million rubles were also paid. The strategically important northern coast of the Black Sea also passed to the Russian Empire.
1787-1792 - The second Russian-Turkish war during the reign of Catherine II	Turkey again became the initiator of hostilities. The declaration of war on the Russian Empire was a pretext for the return of its territories lost during the previous military campaign.	Thanks to a new series of land and sea victories, Russia managed to win a landslide victory. During the signed peace agreement, the border between the two countries was moved to the Dniester, and Ochakov and Crimea passed to the Russian Empire.
1769-1796 - establishment of important friendly relations with Georgia	After Irakli II came to power in Georgia in 1762, the country began to recover from the crisis. Experiencing regular attacks by the Turks and Persians, the ruler of Georgia turned to Catherine II for help. In 1769, Catherine sent a small detachment to Georgia to fight Turkey on the side of the former. This event was the beginning of allied relations between the two countries.	The Russian Empire not only gained an important ally in the face of Georgia, but also gained influence over the kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti in exchange for military assistance to the Georgian government.

War activities

During the reign of Catherine II, the Russian Empire took part in several major wars, and it was both the attacking side and the defending side.

Date and name of hostilities		results
First war with Poland (fight against the Bar Confederation)	The nobility of Lithuania and Poland did not want to accept the intervention of Catherine II in the affairs of the Commonwealth	Russia has won. The first partition of the Commonwealth took place. Turkey was drawn into hostilities due to the intrigues and complicity of France and the Confederates
First war with Turkey	The devastation of the city of Balta by a detachment of Russian troops, who pursued the Confederates, was considered a formal pretext. In fact, the Ottoman Empire wanted to expand its influence on the Black Sea coast and strengthen its power over Poland, which was in an internal crisis. It was important for Russia to gain access to the Black Sea and remove the danger that came from the Crimean Khanate.	Russia has won. The Kyuchuk-Kainarji peace treaty was signed, according to which the Crimean Khanate gained independence. Russia received Azov, Kabarda, Kerch and the lands between the Dnieper and the Southern But - there was an outlet to the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov. Turkey was obliged to pay indemnity for 4.5 million rubles for a period of 3 years.
Revolt in the Crimean Khanate (including the Nogai uprising)	An attempt by Turkey to return the Crimean Khanate by introducing unrest among the indigenous population. The people were turned against Khan Shahid Giray, who was appointed by Catherine II.	The Crimean Khanate became part of the Russian Empire. This gave the country access to the northern part of the Black Sea. Catherine II immediately began the development of new territories, laying several large ports (including Sevastopol). On the basis of these ports, the creation of the Black Sea Fleet began.
Second war with Turkey	Turkey's attempt to return all the lands that were lost during the last conflict, including the Crimean Khanate.	Russia has won. The Iasi Peace Treaty was signed, according to which Turkey could no longer claim the Crimea, and Russia's borders expanded to the Dniester. Catherine II was able to consolidate her position on the Black Sea.
Russo-Swedish War	Sweden decided to make an attempt to regain the territories it had lost in previous conflicts.	The Treaty of Verel was signed, according to which the borders remained unchanged.
Second war with Poland (War with the Commonwealth)	In 1791 there was an attempt to adopt a constitution to unite the Polish and Lithuanian people. Catherine II opposed this idea, as she was afraid of claims for the return of previously lost lands.	Russia has won. In 1793, the Second Partition of the Commonwealth took place.
Suppression of the Kosciuszko uprising	Kosciuszko tried to raise the population against the occupation by Russia, Prussia and Austria	Russia has won. In 1795, the Third Partition of the Commonwealth took place. Poland lost its independence and ceased to exist as a state.
War with Persia	An attempt by the new Shah of Persia to return the former borders. He attacked Georgia, with which in 1783 Catherine concluded the "Treaty of St. George" promising military protection.	Russia has won. Positions in the Caucasus were strengthened

The results of the foreign policy of Catherine II

During the reign of Catherine II, the Russian Empire became a great power. Military operations were successful and thanks to this, the territory of the state was significantly expanded.

However, historians note that some decisions of the empress were rather negative. This is especially true of the division of the Commonwealth and the liquidation of Poland as an independent state. So Valishevsky and Klyuchevsky believe that these sections brought much more benefit to Prussia and Austria, and not to Russia.

In addition to the fact that Catherine established friendly relations with Georgia, she continued to correspond with prominent figures in England, Austria and France. During the reign of Catherine, it was possible to achieve a significant expansion of the country's territory, and in different directions. The Russian Empire was lucky in the confrontation with Turkey and Poland, which helped to capture the strategically important territories of Belarus, Crimea and Ukraine. However, such political successes alarmed other powers, especially Austria and Prussia. The partitions of the Commonwealth were initiated precisely by the Austrian and Prussian politicians out of fear that Catherine II might also seize all the Polish territories. If events had developed like this, then the Russian Empire would have incredibly strengthened itself in the international arena, and this could threaten the political and economic well-being of other states.

Do not forget that political relations are far from friendly. Despite the fact that Catherine II was respected by representatives of the ruling elite of other states, they sought to weaken the country in every possible way in order to make Russia more vulnerable and weak.

As a legacy from her predecessors, Catherine received three main directions in foreign policy. The first one is the northern one. The Swedes constantly sought to return the lands lost in the time of Peter the Great, but they did not succeed: the zenith of Sweden's greatness, achieved under Charles XII, with him was lost irretrievably. After Northern war the country could never restore its economic and human resources to a level sufficient for a successful war with Russia. This, however, did not exclude the presence in Stockholm of forces ready to take advantage of any opportunity to try their luck. St. Petersburg was well aware of the long-standing aspirations of the Swedes and was ready to fight back.

In the southern direction, for a long time the dream of the rulers of Russia was access to the shores of the warm Black Sea, which was dictated by the needs of the country's economy and defense. Here, the decades that have elapsed since the Prut campaign have made significant adjustments to the balance of power: the Ottoman Empire was declining, many European powers looked at its possessions with greed, while Russia was at the height of glory and power. Timidity before the Turks passed, and cautious defensive tactics were replaced by broad offensive plans and confidence in an early victory over the once formidable enemy. But it was impossible to defeat Turkey alone, and therefore, already in the time of Peter the Great, Russia was looking for an alliance with Poland and Austria. The condition for an alliance with Austria was Russia's support for the so-called "pragmatic sanction" - a document, according to Roma, after the death of Emperor Charles VI (he died in 1740), the throne was to pass to his daughter Maria Theresa. The Austrian government was so interested in supporting the "pragmatic sanction" that for the sake of this it was ready to make any concessions. The alliance with Austria led Russia to clash with Prussia in the Seven Years' War.

The third direction was also traditional - the Polish direction, which reflected Russia's desire to unite in the Empire all the lands inhabited by closely related Russian peoples - Ukrainians and Belarusians. In the XVIII century. The Commonwealth experienced about the same difficult times as the Ottoman Empire. While the neighbors developed industry and trade, created powerful armed forces and strong absolutist regimes, the Commonwealth could not overcome the separatism of magnates, get rid of political chaos (liberum veto, etc.), and became easy prey for its neighbors: Prussia, Austria and Russia. Already under Peter I, Russia did not hesitate to apply the methods of forceful pressure against Poland, which since that time have become common in Russian-Polish relations. The Russian Empire used the weakness of the Polish state to constantly interfere in its internal affairs and counteract the strengthening of this country. Poland became, in fact, a toy in the hands of Russia, which Catherine II was well aware of.

The international position of the Russian Empire at the time of Catherine II's accession to the throne was far from simple. The diplomatic successes of the reign of Elizabeth, reinforced by the courage of Russian soldiers on the battlefields of the Seven Years' War, were actually nullified by the impulsive policy of Peter III. The old foreign policy doctrine was destroyed, and the new one was no good. The financial situation was also difficult; the tired army did not receive a salary for eight months. However, other countries as a result of the war were no less weakened and they also had to redefine the direction of their foreign policy. In other words, Catherine II had a rare opportunity, almost without regard to the past, to re-develop her own foreign policy course. At the same time, Russia had certain advantages compared to other countries - it was the winner in the war, its army was still in Europe and at any moment could turn around again on a marching march. It is no coincidence that the news of the coup in St. Petersburg on June 28, 1762 plunged the European courts, especially the Prussian, into a state of shock. The weakness of others gave strength to Catherine, foreign diplomats noticed that from the first days of her reign she began to treat them proudly and arrogantly. This independent tone of the empress in dealing with foreigners impressed her closest circle, making a sharp contrast with the manner of Peter III, who fawned over Prussia.

The first period of Catherine's foreign policy (1762 - 1774)

Catherine II began her foreign policy activities by returning home Russian troops who were abroad, confirmed peace with Prussia, but rejected the military alliance concluded with her by Peter III. After that, the attention of the Prussian government was drawn to Courland - a small duchy in the territory of modern Latvia, formally under the rule of the Polish crown, but with autonomy rights and an elected duke at the head. Catherine set a goal to annex Courland to Russia and therefore considered it necessary to put her protege on the ducal throne, who was not connected in any way with the Polish king. Her candidate was Biron, the favorite of Anna Ioannovna, who was elected the Duke of Courland back in 1739 (since 1741 he was in exile, from where he was released by Peter III.) In carrying out the planned, Catherine II demonstrated toughness and determination, as if showing the whole world, what will it be foreign policy. To secure the crown for Biron, Russian troops were brought into Courland; as a result, the situation was so favorable for Russia that even then in 1762 Courland could have become part of Russia. But Catherine also wanted to show herself as a just ruler, so she wisely satisfied herself with what she had achieved, making Biron her vassal and ensuring the future entry of Courland into the empire (finally in 1795).

In the same 1762, Catherine decided to put her protege on the Polish throne. I had to wait until October 1763, when King August II (also a Russian protege) died and Russia immediately began decisive action. The new task, however, was more difficult, and for its solution it was necessary to enlist the non-intervention of other European powers. In March 1764, a new alliance treaty was signed with Prussia, according to which the parties agreed on joint actions in order to preserve the existing political system in Poland, which made it possible to influence Polish politics.

The alliance with Prussia ensured the non-intervention of Austria and France, which had their own candidates for the Polish throne. Russia's intentions were again reinforced by the introduction of Russian troops, as a result of which, in August 1764, the former favorite of Catherine, Stanislav Poniatowski, was elected king of Poland. This was a great victory, but only at first glance, since it was after these events that Russia got bogged down in Polish problems for a long time.

The powerful party of the princes Czartoryski, whose nephew was the newly elected king, sought to change the political system of Poland by introducing a hereditary monarchy, and in exchange for Russia's support promised to improve the position of the Polish Orthodox, the so-called dissidents. As a result, the country found itself in a very difficult position: public opinion in Russia itself had long insisted on helping dissidents, but to agree with the plans of the Czartoryskis meant changing the basic principles of their policy in Poland. As a result, Russia lost the support of a serious political force in Poland, and in 1768 the so-called Bar Confederation of Polish magnates opposed it, to fight which Russian troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov were again brought into Poland. And although Suvorov's actions were generally successful, the solution of the Polish problem was only delayed.

Meanwhile, Russia's active actions in Poland began to worry Austria and France more and more. Their anxiety was also reinforced by the “northern system” of treaties between Russia and the Protestant states of Europe, conceived by N.I. Panin, the leader of Russian foreign policy at that time, aimed at strengthening Russia’s leading role in world politics. It was necessary to divert Russia's attention from European problems, and this was achieved as a result of a complex intrigue, when France and Austria managed to induce Turkey to declare war on Russia (autumn 1768). By this time, Catherine II had reigned for more than five years, but Russia was not yet sufficiently prepared for the war and entered it without much enthusiasm, especially since the military conflict with Turkey evoked unpleasant memories.

Entering the war with Turkey (1768 - 1774), the Russian government defined as the main goal the acquisition of the right to freedom of navigation on the Black Sea, the acquisition of a convenient port on the Black Sea coast, and the establishment of secure borders with Poland. The beginning of the war turned out quite well for Russia. Already in the spring of 1769, Russian troops occupied Azov and Taganrog, and at the end of April they defeated two large formations of Turkish troops near Khotyn, although the fortress itself was captured only in September. Then, in September-October 1769, Moldavia was liberated from the Turks, and Catherine began to call herself the Moldavian princess. In November, Russian troops took Bucharest. The Russian corps sent to Georgia also fought successfully. Finally, on June 24 - 26, 1770, the Russian fleet under the command of A.G. Orlov and Admiral G.A. Spiridov won a complete victory over the Turkish fleet, which was almost twice superior to it in the Chesme Bay. Turks lost 15 battleships, 6 frigates and up to 50 small vessels - almost the entire fleet. The Chesme victory made a great impression on Europe and served to strengthen the glory of Russian weapons.

After a short time, equally brilliant victories were won by the ground forces. In early July, the Russian army under the command of P. A. Rumyantsev defeated the combined forces of the Turks and Crimean Tatars at the confluence of the Larga River with the Prut. The Turks left more than 1000 people on the battlefield, the Russians lost only 29 people killed. On July 21, the famous battle on the Kagul River began, where the 17,000-strong detachment of Rumyantsev managed to defeat almost 80,000 enemy forces.

In July - October 1770, the fortresses of Izmail, Kiliya, Akkerman surrendered to the Russian troops. In September, General P.I. Panin took Bender. In 1771, Russian troops under the command of Prince V. M. Dolgoruky entered the Crimea and captured its main points within a few months.

It seemed that everything was going well, but the real state of affairs was not easy. Firstly, the war simultaneously in Poland (with the Confederation of Bars), in Moldavia, in the Crimea and in the Caucasus demanded an enormous strain of forces and laid an almost unbearable burden on Russia. Secondly, it became clear that the European powers would not allow a significant strengthening of Russia at the expense of Turkey, and therefore it was not necessary to count on the retention and annexation of all the lands seized during the war. Since 1770, Russia had been groping for the grounds for concluding peace, but Turkey, actively supported by Austria, did not want to make any agreements. Only participation in the first partition of Poland in 1772 prompted Austria to withdraw its support from Turkey.

The idea to profit at the expense of Poland arose in the early years of the reign of Catherine II. Prussia repeatedly made similar proposals in the 1960s. However, for the time being, Russia hoped to get the territories of Lithuania and Belarus, which were considered primordially Russian, while maintaining a nominally independent Poland as a buffer between Russia and Prussia. But when the war with the Confederates, supported by the Austrian side, took on a protracted character, the need for an agreement with Austria became clear in order to immediately untie both the Polish and Turkish problems.

Under these conditions, an agreement was born on the division of Poland, signed on July 25, 1772, according to which Russia received the Polish part of Livonia, as well as Polotsk, Vitebsk, Mstislav and part of the Minsk provinces; Galicia (now Western Ukraine) went to Austria, Pomeranian, Chelm and Malbork provinces, part of Greater Poland and Bazmia went to Prussia.

At first glance, Russia's share was the most significant: it acquired territories of 92 thousand square meters. km. with a population of 1 million 300 thousand people. But in reality, in strategic and economic terms, Russia's production was quite modest, because in the hands of Austria, for example, such an important economic and trade center as Lvov turned out to be, and in the hands of Prussia - areas with the most developed agriculture. True, Russia for a long time kept what was left of the Commonwealth in its sphere of influence: until 1788, the Polish king could do practically nothing without the permission of the Russian ambassador in Warsaw. In 1776, King Stanislaw August Poniatowski, with the consent of Russia, carried out some reforms aimed at strengthening the Polish statehood, which stabilized the situation and made it possible in 1780 to withdraw Russian troops from Poland.

In 1774, after long negotiations, Russia managed to make peace with Turkey. According to the Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhysky Treaty (after the name of the village where peace was concluded), Russia finally received the right to free passage of its ships through the Bosporus and Dardanelles, the fortresses of Kerch and Yenikale and a significant contribution. Turkey undertook to restore the autonomy of Moldavia and Wallachia, not to oppress the Orthodox in Transcaucasia, and also recognized the independence of Crimea, which, according to the plan of the Russian government, was to ensure its further entry into the Russian Empire.

The second period of Catherine's foreign policy (1775 - 1796)

The Kyuchuk-Kainarji peace ended the first period of Catherine II's foreign policy; the next (70-90s) was also marked by serious successes in the diplomatic and military spheres. The alignment of forces in the foreign policy arena changed somewhat at that time.

The lands acquired by Russia under an agreement with Turkey were wedged between the possessions of the Ottoman Empire, Poland and the Crimean Khanate, which in itself made new clashes inevitable. It was clear that Russia would continue to strive to gain a foothold in the Northern Black Sea region, and Turkey would oppose this in every possible way. Indeed, emboldened by internal troubles in Russia, the Turks significantly strengthened the garrisons of their fortresses on the northern coast of the Black Sea, flooded the Crimea and Kuban with agents, and the Turkish fleet demonstrated its power near the Crimean coast. At the same time, Turkey counted on the support of the European powers - the opponents of Russia, and primarily England. However, in 1775, England began a protracted war with the North American colonies and was even forced to turn to Russia with a request to provide her with 20,000 Russian soldiers to fight the rebels. Catherine, after hesitating, refused, but closely followed the development of the conflict, trying to use it to her advantage.

Meanwhile, in December 1774, a coup d'état, as a result of which Devlet-Giray ended up on the khan's throne, trying to establish contact with both Turkey and Russia at the same time. However, the Russian government needed an unequivocal supporter in Crimea, such as Shagin Giray. In order to erect him on the Khan's throne in the spring of 1776, Russian troops began to prepare for an invasion of the Crimea.

Support for Russia's actions in the Crimea was provided by the strengthening of the alliance with Prussia, a new agreement with which was signed in August 1776, and already in November the Russians entered the Crimea. In March of the following year, the treaty of friendship with Prussia was extended, and in April Shagin Giray was elevated to the khan's throne. When, less than a year later, a rebellion broke out against him, he was again suppressed with the help of Russian troops.

Simultaneously with these events, a new conflict broke out in the center of Europe between Austria and Prussia, this time over Bavaria, which the Austrian emperor Joseph tried to annex to his possessions. Prussia asked for Russian help, and Austria turned to France. The latter was on the verge of war with England and therefore was not interested in fanning a military fire on the continent. And when in the summer of 1778 the war between Austria and Prussia nevertheless broke out, and at the same time the Turks made an unsuccessful attempt to land in the Crimea, France offered its mediation in settling both conflicts. Prussia agreed to this proposal on the condition that Russia be the second mediator. Thus, the Russian government had a unique opportunity to significantly strengthen its position in the international arena.

In March 1779, a peace congress was opened in Teshen, which was actually chaired by the Russian envoy, Prince N.V. Repnin. In May, the congress ended with the signing of the Peace of Teshen, which became a major success for Russian diplomacy. According to this treaty, Russia was called not only a mediator, but also a guarantor of peace, which made it possible to freely intervene in German affairs. The mutual understanding reached with France was also important, relations with which for a long time, the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna, remained cool. With the mediation of France, a Russian-Turkish agreement was signed - an "explanatory convention" that confirmed the independence of Crimea and the rights of Shahin Giray to the Khan's throne.

In 1780, Russia came up with an important international initiative: the famous Declaration of Armed Neutrality was prepared, according to which ships of neutral countries not participating in military conflicts had the right to defend themselves in the event of an attack on them. The declaration was directed against England, which was trying to prevent the development of Russian maritime trade with its opponents. Soon Sweden, Denmark, Holland and Prussia joined the Declaration. A virtually anti-British coalition was created, which, without interfering in the war with the North American colonies, in fact provided serious support to the United States. At the same time, in Russian government circles, the idea of ​​​​the so-called. Greek project.

The essence of the "Greek project" was to restore the Byzantine Empire with its capital in Constantinople and with the second grandson of Catherine II, Konstantin Pavlovich, on the imperial throne. In fact, its very name Grand Duke, born in April 1779, received in accordance with this project. At the festival in honor of his birth, Greek verses were read; for the celebration, a medal was minted with the image of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. Such a development of the Russian foreign policy doctrine was dictated by the very logic of events.

Confidence in the possibility of implementing the project was given by the new position of Russia in the international arena, acquired as a result of successes at the Teshen Congress. But in order to put the plans into practice, it was necessary to return to the alliance with Austria, which was not difficult, since all the possible benefits from the alliance with Prussia had already been extracted. The first step towards rapprochement with Austria was taken in the spring of 1780, when during Catherine's trip to the western provinces, she met with Emperor Joseph. It was then, to the satisfaction of both monarchs, that an agreement was reached on an anti-Turkish alliance, including, at least in general terms, the “Greek project”. A year later, Catherine II and Joseph II exchanged messages with mutual obligations in the event of a war with Turkey, as well as the preservation of the political regime in Poland. A similar exchange of letters, invented by Catherine, was a novelty in international relations, which made it possible to keep agreements secret. At the same time, an exchange of letters took place directly on the project of restoring the Greek Empire. However, no official agreement on the "Greek project" was ever concluded. The plan was too bold to be made public. In fact, this project was a distant goal of Russia, the dream of the Empress, and in many respects served as the basis of foreign policy doctrine. Events were not long in coming.

Already in the early 1789s, the situation in the Crimea aggravated again, the throne of Shagin-Girey staggered, and in the spring of 1782. Khan was forced to flee to Kerch under the protection of Russian troops. Turkey was already preparing to place its protege on the Khan's throne when Catherine ordered G. A. Potemkin to send Russian troops into the Crimea. After the restoration of Shagin Giray on the throne, the troops did not leave this time. And a few months later, having received the full support of Austria and put an end to her hesitations, on April 8, 1783, Catherine signed a manifesto on “accepting the Crimean Peninsula, Taman Island and the entire Kuban side under the Russian state.”

The annexation of Crimea became possible, of course, thanks to the political assistance of Austria and the non-intervention of other European powers, which, not being interested at that time in the Russian-Turkish conflict, tried in every possible way to persuade Turkey to reconcile. Meanwhile, the annexation was carrying out difficulties. In the summer of 1783, there was an uprising of the Nogais living in the Kuban region. But already in August, a Russian detachment of 1000 people under the command of A.V. Suvorov inflicted a heavy defeat on the numerically superior Nogais. The covert maneuver of the Russians took the enemy by surprise. In October 1783, at the mouth of the Laba River, the Nogais were completely defeated, which finally completed the annexation of the Kuban to Russia.

By this time, the borders of the Russian Empire came close to the Caucasus. The peoples living here were squeezed from three sides by Russia, Turkey and Iran, which made the existence of small independent kingdoms almost impossible. It was clear that in the upcoming military clash between Russia and Turkey, the Caucasus could be a theater of military operations, but before that, the highlanders had to choose one side or another. The events of recent years showed that it was more profitable to join Russia as a stronger power. It was also important that the peoples of Georgia and Armenia who professed Orthodoxy (or Gregorianism close to it) received guaranteed protection from religious oppression if they joined Russia. As a result of negotiations between the Russian government and representatives of the Kartli-Kakhetian king Erekle II, on July 24, 1783, the Treaty of St. George was signed, according to which the Kartli-Kakheti kingdom came under the protector of Russia, which guaranteed its inviolability and territorial integrity. According to the secret articles of the treaty, two battalions of Russian troops were sent to Tbilisi (Tiflis).

The next few years in Russian diplomacy were marked by activity aimed at strengthening their position. At the same time, as a result of further rapprochement with Austria and partly with France, tension increased in relations with Prussia and England. In January 1787, Catherine II, accompanied by the court and foreign diplomats, went to her famous journey to Crimea. The trip is primarily of international importance: in the Crimea, the empress was to meet with the Austrian emperor and the Polish king and demonstrate Russian power to them, frightening Turkey with this demonstration. G. A. Potemkin was appointed the main organizer of the whole action. It is with Catherine's journey to the Crimea that the well-known expression "Potemkin villages" is associated. It is believed that Potemkin allegedly built grandiose decorations along the road, depicting non-existent villages. In fact, he only followed the custom of his time to decorate court festivities, but the real villages were decorated so magnificently that the audience began to doubt their authenticity. All this magnificent decoration, combined with a demonstration of the regiments of the Russian army, the Tatar and Kalmyk cavalry and the Black Sea fleet, made an indelible impression on foreigners. In Kherson, Catherine II, together with Emperor Joseph II, was present at the launching of three ships, which was abandoned with all possible pomp.

Throughout the grandiose staging of Potemkin, the idea was invariably present and even dominated. great empire, heirs of Byzantium. Thus, the gates installed at the entrance to Kherson were designed as a road to Byzantium, and the newly built cities in Novorossia were given Greek names (Sevastopol, Simferopol, etc.). The presence of Joseph II at the celebrations emphasized the unity of the plans of Vienna and St. Petersburg. However, it was necessary to start their implementation earlier than expected. Already in mid-July 1787, the Russian ambassador in Istanbul was presented with an ultimatum with obviously unrealistic demands, including the return of the Crimea, and then it was announced that all previously concluded agreements were broken. This was the beginning of a new Russian-Turkish war (1787 - 1791).

Russia entered the war without having had time to complete preparations for it: the army formations were not completed, the construction of the Black Sea Fleet was not completed, and food and equipment depots were almost empty. However, on September 7, 1787, Catherine signed a manifesto on the war; G.A. was appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian army. Potemkin. He also exercised direct leadership of the main Yekaterinoslav army, numbering up to 82 thousand people. The second army, twice as small in number, was led by P. A. Rumyantsev. In addition, a 12,000-strong detachment was supposed to operate in the Caucasus, and the Don Cossacks covered the Kuban.

The Turks assumed already at the beginning of the war to land large landings in the Crimea and the mouth of the Dnieper, and to conduct the main offensive in Moldova. In October 1787, the Turkish fleet blocked the mouth of the Dnieper and landed a 6,000-strong detachment on the Kinburn Spit. Here a detachment of Russian troops under the command of A.V. was waiting for him. Suvorov. A battle took place (October 1) during which the landing force was destroyed. The victory on the Kinburn Spit at the very beginning of the war was extremely important for the Russian army, but not everything turned out so well. Back in September, the Russian Sevastopol fleet was defeated by a storm, as a result of which the siege of the Ochakov fortress by the Russian army dragged on for a long time, and it was taken only in December 1788. The actions of Austria, which entered the war, were ineffective, and it was not necessary to count on its special help. Meanwhile, the slowness and indecision of the allies were taken for weakness, and in the summer of 1788, pushed by England and Prussia, Sweden (1788-1790) got involved in the war with Russia, dreaming of revenge since the time of the Nystadt Peace. The decisive naval battle near the island of Gogland took place on July 6th. Both fleets were pretty battered. Russian sailors under the command of Admiral S.K. Greig captured the Swedish 70-gun ship Prince Gustav, and the Swedes captured the same Russian ship Vladislav. However, since the Swedes retreated first, the victory remained with the Russians. Deprived of support from the sea, the Swedish land forces in 1789 acted unsuccessfully, and the next year Sweden was forced to make peace. The year 1789 turned out to be decisive in the Russian-Turkish war as well, it was marked by new brilliant victories. On July 21, 1789, 5,000 Russians and 12,000 Austrians, united under the command of Suvorov, stormed the fortified camp of the Turks near Focsani, defeating the 30,000th Turkish corps of Mustafa Pasha. A month and a half later, having made a swift march of one hundred miles in two days, Suvorov on September 11 inflicted another crushing defeat on the Turks near the Rymnik River. For this battle, Suvorov was granted the title of count with the honorary title of Rymniksky. In the next few months of 1789, Russian troops took Akkerman and Bender, and Austrian troops took Belgrade and Bucharest. However, the international situation as a whole was developing unsuccessfully for Austria and Russia. Russia in Europe was opposed by Sweden, and Austria by Prussia. It was not necessary to count on the support of France, where the revolution took place in July 1789. Prussia, meanwhile, stepped up its diplomatic activities and concluded treaties with Poland and Turkey. In March 1790, Emperor Joseph II died, his successor Leopold II, fearing a war with Prussia, was forced to conclude an agreement with Turkey on the cessation of hostilities. Russia was actually left face to face with its adversaries.

In Russian court circles at that time there were different points of view about the prospects for the continuation of the war: however, Catherine II correctly calculated that Prussia would ultimately not decide on an open clash with Russia, and England's attention would be occupied by events in France. By the end of 1790, the Russian army won a series of new convincing victories over the Turks, the most brilliant of which was the capture of Ishmael on December 11, 1790, a fortress that the Turks considered impregnable.

Turkish troops were also defeated in the North Caucasus. Finally, on July 31, 1791, the Russian fleet under the command of F.F. Ushakov defeated the Turks at Cape Kaliakria. On the same day, a truce was signed with Turkey, which asked for mercy, and at the end of December 1791, the long-awaited Treaty of Jassy, ​​according to which Turkey finally recognized the annexation of Crimea, and the new border between the two countries was determined along the Dniester.

Meanwhile, during the entire Russian-Turkish war, the Polish problem was constantly aggravated. Back in 1787, King Stanisław August made another attempt to strengthen Polish statehood through internal political reforms. In exchange for supporting these reforms, he offered Russia assistance in the fight against Turkey, but Prussia opposed the conclusion of the agreement being prepared. In the meantime, the Sejm, called the Four Years, gathered, which, according to the plan of Stanislav August, was to approve the strengthening royalty. However, the strong anti-royal opposition in the Sejm achieved a reorientation of Polish policy from Russia to Prussia, which resulted in the aforementioned Polish-Prussian treaty of 1790. The Sejm adopted a number of important decisions, the most significant of which was the constitution of May 3, 1791.

Catherine II was alarmed and annoyed by the news of the Polish constitution, since it violated the established world order, and the strengthening of Poland's independence did not suit Russia in any way. Having waited for the settlement of the Austro-Prussian and Russian-Turkish relations, Catherine again sent troops to Poland. The campaign was short-lived, and by the summer of 1792 the Russian army controlled the entire territory of the Commonwealth. In December, St. Petersburg gave a positive response to Prussia's proposal for a new division of Poland, officially announced in April of the following 1793. The result of the division was the receipt by Prussia of a territory of 38 thousand square meters. km. from yrs. Gdansk, Torun, Poznan. The Russian Empire increased its possessions by 250 thousand square meters. km. at the expense of the territories of the East. Belarus and Right-Bank Ukraine.

The second partition of Poland gave rise to a large-scale patriotic movement led by Tadeusz Kosciuszko. At first, the rebels managed to achieve some success, but their cause was doomed when A.V. took command of the Russian troops. Suvorov. Having defeated the Kosciuszko uprising, the European powers in October 1795 carried out the third partition of Poland. Austria received another 47 thousand square meters. km of Polish lands with the city of Lublin, Prussia - 48 thousand square meters. km. with Warsaw, and Russia - 120 thousand square meters. km, including Western Volyn, Lithuania, Courland. The third partition of Poland put an end to Polish statehood, which was revived only in 1918.

The results of the foreign policy activities of Catherine II

The foreign policy activity of Catherine II of the last years of her reign was largely due to the revolutionary events in France. At first, these events aroused something like gloating in the Empress, since she always treated political regime France is very critical, and its Order of the Legislative Commission in the reign of Louis XVI was even banned from distribution there. Information about events in France was regularly published in Russian newspapers, and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen was published, the main ideas of which coincided with the ideas of Nakaz. However, by 1792, the Empress increasingly began to perceive the French events as a rebellion against the very idea of ​​power and saw in them a danger to monarchical Europe. Catherine actively participated in the building of the anti-French coalition, helped French emigrants, especially after receiving news of the execution of the king and queen in early 1793. However, until the death of Catherine, the Russian army did not take a direct part in military operations against France. The Empress hoped to draw Austria and Prussia into French affairs in order to free her hands to carry out her own plans.

Assessing Catherine's foreign policy as a whole, it should be recognized that, in full accordance with the very spirit of the era, its basic ideas, as well as the specific circumstances of the international situation, this policy was of a pronounced imperial nature and was distinguished by expansionism, neglect of the interests of other peoples, and to a certain extent, aggressiveness. Catherine II successfully continued and triumphantly completed the creation of the Russian Empire begun by Peter I as a great world power. The foreign policy results of Catherine's 34-year stay on the throne were significant territorial acquisitions and the final consolidation of the status of a great power for Russia. The country began to play one of the leading roles in world politics, which made it possible to influence in its own interests on the solution of almost any international issue. All this made it possible in the nineteenth century to further expand the boundaries of the empire. In essence, it was during the Catherine era that a “single and indivisible” empire was created with inexhaustible human and economic resources and endless expanses that swallowed up any conqueror. It was a multinational state with a unique ethnic, economic, cultural, natural and social image.

The brilliant victories of the Russian commanders of Catherine's time on land and at sea contributed to the formation of national self-consciousness, which, however, was inseparable at that time from the imperial consciousness.

The successes of Catherine's reign in foreign policy were highly appreciated both by contemporaries and by several generations of descendants, however, in the historical perspective, much of this legacy turned into serious problems for Russia and its peoples. Firstly, the empire took shape as a unitary state with a strong central authority, which essentially ensured its longevity, for only a strong central authority was able to keep this huge country in obedience. At the same time, they gradually began to look at the empire itself as the highest value, and see the most important patriotic duty in caring for its preservation. Obviously, the interests of both the individual and individual peoples were ignored. The infringement of national interests extended to all the peoples inhabiting the empire, including the Russians, the people of the metropolis, who not only did not receive any benefits from this position, but also bore the main burdens of ensuring the viability of the country on their shoulders. However, the colonial policy of the government was associated for the peoples of the empire with the Russian people, which contributed to inciting ethnic hatred.

Secondly, the active participation of Russia in the partitions of Poland for the next two centuries determined the development of Russian-Polish relations and turned them into the most important factor in Russia's foreign policy, because international stability began to largely depend on the relationship of the powers participating in the partitions. The Polish people could not come to terms with the destruction of their statehood, and throughout the 19th century. The Russian government was repeatedly forced to use military force to suppress Polish uprisings. This was done again by the hands of Russian soldiers, which naturally gave rise to strong anti-Russian sentiments in Poland. It should be mentioned that the emergence of the Jewish question in Russia is connected with the partitions of Poland.

wiki.304.ru / History of Russia. Dmitry Alkhazashvili.

“Of the Russian sovereigns who reigned in Russia in the 18th century, after Peter the Great, Catherine II, of course, occupies the most prominent place in her talent.”

Alexander Sergeevich Lappo-Danilevsky

The political views of Catherine II were largely formed under the influence of the ideas of the French Enlightenment. She especially carefully studied the works of Charles Montesquieu: "The Spirit of the Laws" became her "prayer book".

Catherine believed that only autocracy was acceptable for Russia as a form of power, but she emphasized that “power without the power of attorney of the people means nothing” and that the “pretext” of autocratic rule should not be “depriving people of their natural liberty”, but the direction of “their actions”. to receive the greatest good from all”, which is what distinguished the monarchy from “despotism”.

Having ascended the throne, Catherine II decided, first of all, to collect detailed information about the state of the empire and immediately begin to reorganize the state order and codify law.

For this purpose, it was convened, the creation of which was preceded by the work of Catherine II on the "Instruction" - an instruction for the deputies of the commission - written by her from 1764 to 1766. It was based on the ideas of C. Montesquieu and the Italian jurist C. Becaria.

The main principles formulated in the "Instruction":

• Russia is a European state.
• Autocracy is the only true form of government.
• The identity of the citizen was recognized (freedom of conscience, opinion; personal and property rights), but the need for a class system headed by the nobility was emphasized.
• For the first time, the principle of the presumption of innocence, the proportionality of punishment and crime, the need to abolish torture as a method of interrogation were formulated.
• The idea of ​​forming a "middle kind of people", the so-called middle class in the country.

Work of the Legislative Commission

The "big meeting" was attended by 564 deputies from all lands and estates, except for the clergy and landlord peasants. The commission was headed by Prince A. A. Vyazemsky and A. I. Bibikov.

As a result of the one and a half year work of the meeting, it turned out that the deputies were not ready for large-scale lawmaking, they did not see the overall political picture. In addition, the process revealed many contradictions both between representatives of different classes, and within the nobility of various national groups.

Catherine, taking advantage of the outbreak of war with Turkey (1768), dissolved the "general meeting" of the Legislative Commission. The work was continued only by private commissions, and Catherine II used the bills created by them in her own legislative activities.

In general, the creation of a “big meeting” was the first experience of studying public opinion, open discussion government issues. Thus, the ruler collected information about public sentiment, learned about the state of the empire.

Changes in the administrative-territorial division of Russia

Within the above goal in 1763 the Senate was reformed. It was divided into six departments, each of which performed a strictly defined function. As a result, his work became more efficient and efficient. However, the Senate lost the power to legislate. Its main task was to control their implementation and compliance.

In order to bring to the uniformity of the system of government throughout the empire, in 1764 the hetmanate in Ukraine was liquidated. The Little Russian Collegium was recreated, P. A. Rumyantsev was appointed governor-general.

Despite this, the policy of integration of Ukraine was carried out gradually. Administrative division into regiments and hundreds was eliminated only in the early 1780s. throughout Left-bank Ukraine three governorates were formed.

In 1783, a decree was issued prohibiting the free passage of peasants from one landowner to another. Actually serfdom was established in Ukraine, which was primarily dictated by the fiscal interests of the state: the constant movement of peasants made it difficult to collect taxes.

"Institutions for the management of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire" of November 7 1775. - a legislative act that determined the direction provincial reform. He laid the foundations for the administrative-territorial administration of Russia for a long period.

As a result of the reform, 50 provinces created(instead of 15); instead of a three-level administrative-territorial division (province - province - county), a two-level one was introduced: a province (300-400 thousand people) and a county (20-30 thousand people). Local power was transferred to the nobility, who became, in fact, government officials.

Orders of public charity were opened in 40 provinces who were entrusted with the creation of orphanages, hospitals, homes for the terminally ill and workers (to provide jobs for those in need), as well as pharmacies, each of which was allocated a lump sum of 15 thousand rubles from the treasury.

The provincial reform also changed the judicial system. Courts of various instances for criminal and court cases. This contributed to the subsequent separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial. However, the courts still remained class-based.

In 1782, the "Charter of the Deanery" was published- the law on the creation of police in the cities. The councils of the deanery became the highest body of police supervision. The composition of the Council included: the mayor, police chief, bailiffs, ratmans.

In 1785, the “Letter of Letters to the Cities” was published which introduced city self-government.

A new governing body appeared to help the mayor - the six-voted city duma.

Citizens were divided into categories:

• Eminent citizens;
• Merchants of the 1st guild;
• Merchants of the 2nd guild;
• Merchants of the 3rd guild;
• Philistines (homeowners, artisans, townspeople);
• foreign subjects.

The reform was aimed primarily at the formation of the middle class from urban residents: merchants, petty bourgeois, artisans.

"Charter to the nobility" appeared in the same 1785. She included main points"Manifesto on the Liberty of the Nobility" (February 18, 1762), published by Peter III:

• Nobles were exempted from: compulsory military service, corporal punishment.
• Only the noble court had the right to judge them.
• The nobles were given the right to own land and serfs.
• They could dispose of the subsoil on the territory of their estates.
• Their possessions were freed from standing.
• Noble estates could not be alienated.

Economic reforms of Catherine II

In 1764 there was again carried out secularization(alienation in favor of the state) church lands- a reform initiated by Peter III and canceled by Catherine at the beginning of her reign.

As a result, 992,000 male peasants were freed from serfdom and acquired the status of "economic", close to the status of state.

The Orthodox Church switched to state support, but the number of monasteries was limited (about 500 gradually closed).

In 1765 the Free Economic Society was founded- the first in Russia public organization and at the same time the first scientific society.

"The purpose of the society was to disseminate among the people useful and necessary knowledge for agriculture and house-building, to study the situation of Russian agriculture and the conditions of the economic life of the country, as well as the situation of agricultural technology in Western European states." encyclopedic Dictionary Brockhaus and Efron: Volume VII. St. Petersburg:

Publishing Society F. A. Brockhaus - I. A. Efron. 1890-1907

The Free Economic Society began to collect statistical data on the state of soils, forests, livestock breeding, on the state of the grain trade, etc. The books published by it increased the population's interest in agriculture.

Invitation in 1764 to Russia of foreign colonists. According to the Manifesto of 1763, foreign settlers were granted benefits and privileges when using land.

By 1767, about 30 thousand German settlers arrived in the country, who settled mainly in the Volga region.

The purpose of inviting foreigners to the country was:

• Population increase.
• The development of agriculture in the Volga and Ural regions.
• Demonstration of the benefits of free labor and the culture of agricultural production.

In 1769 Assignation banks were opened in St. Petersburg and Moscow authorized to issue paper money instead of metal banknotes). However, the issue of money led to a fall in the exchange rate of banknotes against the silver ruble. So, in 1796, for 1 paper ruble they gave 68.5 k. silver.

Since 1770, banks began not only to issue loans to representatives of all classes, but also to take money for safekeeping with the payment of interest to depositors. Such measures contributed to the improvement of trade.

In 1786 on the basis of St. Petersburg and Moscow banks, a single State Loan Bank.

Reforms in the framework of antitrust policy

Already since the 1760s, an antimonopoly policy was carried out in industry and trade. The privileges of many large manufacturers and merchants were abolished.

Manifesto of March 17, 1775. proclaimed the principles of free enterprise and allowed representatives of all classes to open enterprises.

Decree of 1780. legislated the right of private ownership of factories and manufactories, which contributed to the development of light industry: the number of enterprises increased eightfold by the end of the 18th century. Social reforms of Catherine II

Opening in 1764 of the Orphanage for orphans, illegitimate children and homeless children of all social strata. Pupils of this institution could not be enslaved under any circumstances. In addition, the Orphanage was supported by donations, which contributed to the emergence of charity in Russia.

In 1767, a decree was issued prohibiting peasants from complaining about landowners. In addition, the latter could send serfs to hard labor without trial or investigation. Landlords were forbidden only to kill their peasants.

During the church reform in Russia, the persecution of the Old Believers ceased. The activity of Muslim, Catholic and Protestant communities has become permitted.

Education reform of Catherine II

In 1764 a school for boys was opened at the Academy of Arts and Smolny Institute - Russia's first women's educational institution.

In 1782 was created "Commission for the Establishment of Public Schools", which until 1796 established 316 public schools for children of both sexes and status. However, peasant children often found them inaccessible due to being in cities.

They had a class-lesson system of education.

The results of the domestic policy of Catherine II

The population increased from 19–20 million people (in 1762) to 29 million (in 1796), not counting the population of the acquired territories.

The number of light industry enterprises has increased eightfold.

About 90 heavy industry enterprises were built in the Urals.

In Russia, a general education system was created, for the first time women's educational institutions introduced class-lesson system.

A middle class of people began to form in the country.

The privileged position of the nobility was legally fixed.

• not only finally formed, but also reached its apogee.

Conducted by Ekaterina Alekseevna administrative, social and economic reforms significantly influenced the further development of the country. However, the institution of serfdom significantly hampered development and laid the foundation for future systemic crises.

References:

1. Kamensky A. B. Russia in the XVIII century. M.: AST, Astrel, 2006.
2. Lappo-Danilevsky A.S. Feature article domestic policy Empress Catherine II. St. Petersburg: Printing House M.M. Stasyulevich. 1898
3. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron. St. Petersburg: Publishing Society F. A. Brockhaus - I. A. Efron. 1890-1907

The main directions of foreign policy. During the reign of Catherine II, Russia managed to get closer to solving the foreign policy tasks that the country had been facing for many decades.

The weakening of the military power of Turkey and the Crimea made it increasingly possible to ensure Russia's access to the Black Sea.

Russia's allied relations with Austria and Prussia created an opportunity for the return of Ukrainian and Belarusian lands to Russia, which had been located since the 14th century. in part of the Polish-Lithuanian state.

The task of ensuring the security of Peter's conquests in the Baltic remained.

The Great French Revolution caused the creation of the first anti-French coalition under the auspices of Catherine II.

All these factors determined the main directions of Catherine's foreign policy II.

Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774. Russo-Turkish wars II half of XVIII centuries were explained not only by Russia's desire to reach the Black Sea, but also by no less desire of Turkey itself to expand its possessions in the Northern Black Sea region at the expense of Russia.

In 1768, the Russian-Turkish war broke out. Turkey started it. The cavalry of the Crimean Khan began to advance from the south to the steppe regions of Ukraine. A huge Turkish army was concentrated on the Dniester River to attack Kiev. In addition to heavily fortified fortresses in the Balkans, Turkey relied on its large and well-armed fleet operating in the Black and Azov Seas.

At the initial stage of the war, the battles went on with varying success - the suddenness of the attack and the superiority of Turkey in force affected. The chances of victory increased after the appointment of the illustrious commander, who distinguished himself during the Seven Years' War, P. A. Rumyantsev, as the commander-in-chief of the Russian army. In September 1769, the troops led by him entered Iasi, and then Bucharest. Another part of the Russian army, operating in the lower reaches of the Don and in the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov, occupied Azov and Taganrog. At the same time, a military detachment was sent to help the Georgian population, who had raised an uprising against the Turks in Imeretin.

In July 1770 The Turkish army was defeated by Rumyantsev's troops near the Larga River. A few days later, near the Kagul River, a 17,000-strong Russian detachment defeated the main forces of the Turkish army, numbering 150,000 people.

Meanwhile, a squadron of the Baltic Fleet under the command of A. G. Orlov and G. A. Spiridova rounded Europe and on July 5, 1770, in the Chesme Bay, completely destroyed the Turkish squadron. Landing forces were landed from Russian ships, which, together with the Greek partisans, fought successfully against the Turks.

In 1772, he was transferred from the Commonwealth to the Danube army. Alexander Vasilievich Suvorov. The troops led by him in 1773 occupied Turtukai with a swift blow and crossed the Danube.

Having suffered a complete defeat, Turkey was forced to sue for peace. The Russian army was ready to continue the war. But the peasant war that flared up in the country forced the government to make peace. Under an agreement concluded by P. A. Rumyantsev in the town of Kyuchuk-Kainardzhi in 1774, the territory between the Southern Bug and the Dnieper with the fortress of Kinburn, the fortress of Kerch and Yenikale on the Sea of ​​Azov, Kabarda in the North Caucasus was annexed to Russia. Turkey was also forced to recognize the independence of the Crimean Khanate and the right of the Russian fleet to unhindered passage through the Black Sea straits to the Mediterranean.

However, both parties viewed this treaty as temporary. They were preparing for a new war for the Northern Black Sea region.

Russian-Turkish war of 1787-1791. Another Russo-Turkish war broke out in 1787. The reason for it was the events in the Crimea, where there was a coup in favor of an open protege of Turkey and an enemy of Russia. In response to this, in 1783, Catherine II issued a manifesto on the cessation of the existence of the Crimean Khanate and the annexation of its lands to Russia. As a result, the entire Crimea and part of the North Caucasus became part of Russia. Summer 1787 In the 18th century, Catherine undertook a demonstrative journey to the Crimea (Tavrida), accompanied by the Austrian emperor.

All this caused a storm of indignation in Turkey. In July 1787, the Sultan presented an ultimatum to Russia, in which he demanded the return of the Crimea, the restoration of Turkish power in Georgia and the inspection of Russian ships passing through the Bosporus and the Dardanelles. Russia refused. In August, the Sultan declared war on Russia, which lasted four years.

Russia's military superiority became immediately apparent. In the autumn of 1787, the Turks landed a large landing on the Kinburn Spit at the mouth of the Dnieper. The troops defending Kinburn under the command of Suvorov defeated and destroyed the landing force. In 1788, troops under the command G. A. Potemkina captured the fortress of Ochakov.

In the summer of 1789, decisive battles took place at Focsani and Rymnik, during which Suvorov's troops defeated the Turks, who were numerically superior to them.

main event final stage The war was the siege and capture of the seemingly impregnable fortress of Ishmael, the defense of which was carried out by 35 thousand people. The commandant of Ishmael self-confidently declared that "the sky would soon fall to earth" than the enemy could take this fortress.

The first assault attempts did not really bring success to the Russian troops. Only after the appointment of Suvorov as commander did things move forward.

The famous commander began to prepare troops for the assault. Life-size models of the fortress were created, stairs for the assault were prepared, soldiers were taught to overcome obstacles. The troops literally trained day and night. "It's hard in teaching - it's easy in battle," said Suvorov.

After artillery preparation on December 11, 1790, the assault on the fortress began. The battle went on for ten hours, after which the impregnable Ishmael fell. The Turks lost 26 thousand of their soldiers. The losses on the part of the storming Russians amounted to 2 thousand people. One of the advancing columns was commanded by Major General M. I. Kutuzov.

In the summer of 1791, Russian troops finally defeated the Turkish army.

in the Balkans. Then the young Russian Black Sea Fleet headed by Fedor Fedorovich Ushakov defeated the Turkish squadron in the Kerch Strait.

Turkey was finally defeated and asked for peace. According to the Iasi Peace Treaty of 1791, the Dniester River became the border between the two countries. Turkey recognized all the conquests of Russia in the Northern Black Sea region.

Russia not only got access to the Black Sea, but also became a great Black Sea power. The development of the fertile Black Sea lands began, the construction of many ports and cities on them.

Greek project of Catherine II. Immediately after the end of the first war with Turkey, Catherine II, inspired by the successes, and her favorite, G. A. Potemkin, drew up a plan for further actions against the enemy, weakened by failures. It was assumed that Turkey would be driven back from Europe, and the Greek Empire with its capital in Constantinople would arise on the liberated Balkan lands. Catherine named her second grandson, born in 1779, Constantine in honor of the great Byzantine emperor. In the future, she wanted to see him as the head

Greek Empire. From the eastern Danubian principalities, the empress planned to create a buffer state of Dacia, and transfer the western principalities to Austria (with which she was going to oust Turkey from Europe). This plan caused a great stir in the European capitals, since its implementation (which was quite possible) would cause an unusual strengthening of Russia's already strong position in Europe. Ekaterina did not have time to implement these plans.

Russia's participation in the sections of the Commonwealth. Austria and Prussia, allied with Russia, repeatedly suggested that Russia should divide the weakening Commonwealth. Catherine II did not go to him due to the fact that the Polish king at that time was her protege Stanislav Ponyatovsky. However, after Russia's victories during the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774, there was a very real threat of concluding an alliance between Turkey and Austria for a joint struggle against it. And then Catherine agreed to the division of the Commonwealth. AT 1772 Russia, Austria and Prussia divided among themselves part of the territories of this state. Prussia occupied Pomerania, Austria - Galicia, and Russia - eastern Belarus and part of Livonia.

The second partition, in which Prussia and Russia participated, took place in 1793. The reason for it was the revolutionary events in France. The entire Baltic coast of Poland with Gdansk and Greater Poland with Poznan went to Prussia, and Belarus with Minsk and Right-bank Ukraine went to Russia. This meant that many ancient Russian lands became part of Russia.

Meanwhile, an uprising began in Poland under the leadership of Tadeusz Kosciuszko, directed against the division of Polish lands by neighboring states. Taking advantage of the victories of the rebels, Russia, Austria and Prussia again brought their troops into the Commonwealth and suppressed the uprising. It was decided that the Polish state, as a source of "revolutionary danger", should cease to exist. This meant the third partition of Poland, which took place in 1795. The lands of central Poland with Warsaw went to Prussia. Austria received Lesser Poland with Lublin. The main part of Lithuania, Western Belarus and Western Volhynia went to Russia, and the inclusion of Courland into Russia was also confirmed.

War with Sweden. In the midst of the Russian-Turkish war of 1787-1791, the Swedish king, taking advantage of the difficult situation in Russia, made a last attempt to return part of Peter's conquests. In addition to demanding the return of the entire Baltic coast conquered by Russia, he demanded that Catherine return to Turkey (with whom he acted in alliance) all of her Black Sea acquisitions. Military operations began in 1788 and went on with varying success in Finland and the Baltic Sea. The fate of the war was decided by the Vyborg naval battle in June 1790, which ended with the victory of the Russian fleet. In July, a peace treaty was signed. The war ended without changing the borders between the two countries. Its main result was the conclusion of allied relations between Russia and Sweden, which meant the final recognition by the Swedes of the results of the Northern War.

The policy of "armed neutrality". War broke out in 1775 English colonies in North America for independence. England turned to Russia with a request to hire Russian troops to take part in the fight against the American rebels. In response, Catherine II not only refused this, but later recognized the independence of the United States of America. In 1780, Russia adopted a declaration of "armed neutrality", according to which the ship of any neutral state is under the protection of all neutral states. This position was in the hands of the inhabitants of the American colonies. This greatly offended the interests of England and could not but worsen Russian-British relations. But at the same time, the foundation was laid for the development of ties between Russia and America.

The struggle of Catherine II with revolutionary France. The revolutionary events in France alarmed Catherine from the very beginning. She was hostile to the convocation of the Estates General on May 5, 1789, and especially to the taking of the Bastille on July 14. The Empress declared that she could not allow shoemakers to rule the state in any corner of Europe. She was even more disturbed by reports that some of the representatives of the Russian aristocracy who studied in Paris took part in the revolutionary events of those days. She soon demanded that all her subjects leave France.

On behalf of Catherine, the Russian ambassador in Paris was preparing an escape Louis XVI and his family. However, this escape failed, and soon the king and queen of France were executed. The Empress fell ill, and the court was dressed in mourning. Since then, Russia began to form an anti-French coalition of European states and prepare an invasion of revolutionary France. Diplomatic and trade ties between Russia and France were severed. The French nobility, who was in exile, began to gather in St. Petersburg, headed by the brother of the executed king. In 1795, the first agreement was concluded between England and Russia to send troops to France. Russia was supposed to put up a 60,000-strong army led by Suvorov, and England provided large financial resources for waging war. However, on November 6, 1796, Empress Catherine died, and the campaign did not take place.

The results of Catherine's foreign policy. The foreign policy of Catherine the Great led to a significant increase in the territory of Russia. It included the Right-bank Ukraine and Belarus, the southern Baltic, the Northern Black Sea region, many new territories in the Far East and North America. The inhabitants of the Greek islands and the North Caucasus swore allegiance to the Russian Empress. The population of Russia has increased from 22 million to 36 million people.

Another important result of the foreign policy of Catherine II was the beginning of the transformation of Russia from a great European into a great world power. “I don’t know how it will be with you, but with us not a single gun in Europe dared to fire without our permission,” said Catherine’s Chancellor Count A. Bezborodko. The Russian fleet now plied not only the coastal seas, but also the Mediterranean, the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, supporting Russia's foreign policy in Europe, Asia and America with the power of its guns.

However, the greatness of Russia cost its people a colossal effort and huge material and human losses.

It falls on the period from 1762 to 1796.

At this time, the Seven Years' War was coming to an end in Europe, and Russia was going through a period of rapprochement with Prussia and preparations for a war with Denmark, which Peter III was about to launch. Having come to power, Catherine II managed to maintain neutrality in the Seven Years' War, stop preparing for war with Denmark, and also weaken and eradicate Russian influence at your yard.

Turkish question

The territories of the Black Sea, the North Caucasus and the Crimea were under the rule of Turkey. In 1768, under a far-fetched pretext (referring to the fact that one of the detachments of the Russian army entered the territory of the Ottoman Empire, pursuing the Poles participating in the uprising of the Bar Confederation), the Sultan of Turkey announced the beginning of the Russian-Turkish war, which lasted 6 years.

However, Russia won the war, and the territory of the Crimean Khanate formally became independent, but in fact became dependent on Russia. In addition, under the terms of the peace treaty, the northern coast of the Black Sea went to Russia.

In an attempt to return these territories, Turkey unleashed another war (1787 - 1792), which she also lost, and was forced to cede Ochakov and Crimea to Russia. The result of these two wars was a significant expansion of the territory of the Russian Empire: now the border with the Ottoman Empire was moved to the very Dniester. In addition, as a result of skillful manipulations by the empress, who managed to put a pro-Russian ruler on the throne of the Crimean Khanate, the Crimean Khanate also became part of Russia.

Polish question

The formal reason for intervening in the internal affairs of the Commonwealth, which included the Kingdom of Poland, was the demand to equalize the rights of Orthodox and Protestants with Catholics. As a result of pressure from Catherine II, August Poniatowski occupied the Polish throne, which resulted in the discontent of the Polish gentry and the uprising of the Bar Confederation, which was suppressed by Russian troops. Prussia and Austria, realizing that Russian influence in Poland had increased significantly, offered the Russian Empire to divide the Commonwealth.

The first partition took place in 1772, as a result, Russia received part of the Latvian lands and the eastern part of Belarus. The next division occurred after the citizens of the Commonwealth appealed to Russia for help, who opposed the adoption of the Constitution of 1791. As a result of the division approved at the Grodno Seimas in 1793, Russia received the Right-Bank Ukraine and Central Belarus, including Minsk. And, finally, after the uprising of T. Kosciuszko, in 1795, the last, third partition took place, as a result of which the Commonwealth ceased to exist, and Russia expanded its territory by joining Western Belarus, Courland, Lithuania and Volhynia.

Georgian question

King Erekle II of Kartli-Kakheti turned to Russia to protect his state from the encroachments of the Persians and Turks, and the empress agreed, sending a small detachment to Georgia. After that, in 1783, the Russian Empire and the kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti signed an agreement (“Treaty of St. George”), according to which the kingdom became a protectorate of Russia in exchange for military protection.

Swedish question

Sweden, with the support of England, Holland and Prussia, invaded the territory of the Russian Empire, taking advantage of the fact that Russia was at war with Turkey. However, Russia managed to win here too, and as a result, sign the Treaty of Verel with Sweden (1790), according to the terms of which, the borders between the states remained unchanged.

Other countries

The foreign policy of the empress was aimed not only at expanding the territory of the empire, but also at strengthening Russia's position in the international arena. First of all, it normalized relations with Prussia (a union treaty was signed in 1764), which later made it possible to create the so-called Northern System - an alliance of several European states, including Russia and Prussia, against Austria and France.

In October 1782, Russia signed an agreement on cooperation with Denmark. During the Austro-Prussian war (1778 - 1779) Catherine II acted as an intermediary between the parties, essentially dictating her terms of reconciliation, and thereby restoring balance in Europe.

failures

Like almost any politician, Catherine II also had plans that did not materialize. First of all, this is the Greek project - plans to divide the Turkish lands together with Austria, as well as the Persian campaign with the aim of conquering large territories of Persia, and then Constantinople. The latter was not completed due to the death of the empress, although certain steps were taken.

Results and assessment

The territory of the Russian Empire during the reign of Catherine II expanded significantly due to the annexed and conquered territories, the colonization of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands began. The position of the empire in Europe was also strengthened through the conclusion of numerous cooperation agreements. However, historians are ambivalent about the foreign policy of the empress. Some argue that the destruction of the sovereignty of the Commonwealth was unacceptable.

Critical attitude to the methods of Catherine II and her successors, Paul I and, later, Nicholas I. Nevertheless, the tasks that Catherine II faced as the ruler of one of the most powerful powers, she successfully solved, even if the means she chose were always adequate and far-sighted.