Who was the tutor of Paul 1. Pavel I Petrovich. Peculiarities of conducting foreign policy

Paul the First went down in history as a cruel reformer. Liberal views and European tastes were persecuted, censorship was established, a ban on the import of foreign literature into the country. The emperor, having received the throne, to a large extent restricted the rights of the nobility. Maybe that's why his reign was so short.

In contact with

Childhood

Peter the Third, Pavel's father, was on the Russian throne for only 186 days, although he planned that many years of reign lay ahead of him. After the palace coup, the emperor signed the abdication, which passed to his wife (Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst).

Catherine built her reign on the expansion of the rights and privileges of the nobility, as well as the enslavement of the peasants. During her reign borders Russian Empire were moved to the south and west.

The first son of Peter and Catherine, named Pavel, was born on September 20, 1754. During this period, a political struggle was waged in the palace, so the boy was deprived of the love and care of his parents. At the age of eight, he lost his father. Paul's mother hired a staff of the best nannies and teachers, after which she withdrew herself from the upbringing of the future heir to the throne.

Boy's tutor became Fedor Bekhteev- a diplomat, distinguished by incredible discipline and rigor. He published a newspaper, where the slightest misconduct of the pupil was painted. The second mentor was Nikita Panin, thanks to whom the boy began to study a wide range of subjects - natural history, the Law of God, music, dance.

The inner circle also had an influence on the formation of the personality of the heir to the throne, but communication with peers was minimized - only children of noble families were allowed to reach him.

Catherine bought for her son huge library of Academician Korf. The boy studied many foreign languages, arithmetic, astronomy, history, geography, learned to draw, dance and fence, studied the Law of God. The lad was not taught military discipline, Catherine did not want her son to be fond of this.

The heir was distinguished by an impatient character, was a restless child, but he could boast of a rich imagination and a love of reading. His education was of the highest quality possible at that time.

Personal life of the future emperor

The first wife of the future ruler died in childbirth, and Sophia Dorothea of ​​Württemberg (Maria Feodorovna) became the second chosen one.

Children of Paul I- first-born Alexander (1777), Konstantin (1779), Alexandra (1783), Elena (1784), Maria (1786), Catherine (1788), Olga (1792, died in infancy), Anna (1795), Nikolai (1796) ), Mikhail (1798).

Despite having many children and almost constant pregnancies, Maria Fedorovna was engaged in housekeeping and regularly participated in social events. However, it was not of particular importance at court due to the discord between her husband and his mother.

Maria Fedorovna was a dutiful princess, who followed the postulates that were learned by her in her youth, but due to circumstances beyond her control, her personal life with her husband came to discord after 20 years. After the birth of her last son, the obstetrician forbade her to become pregnant, as this could cost the woman her life.

The emperor was disappointed by this circumstance and started a relationship with another woman - the favorite Anna Lopukhina. Maria Fedorovna herself took up charity work and began to manage orphanages, streamlining the work of institutions for homeless and abandoned children. She also actively addressed the issues of women's education and founded a number of educational institutions for them.

Rise to power

When Paul I ruled? He ascended the throne at the age of 42 on November 6, 1796, when Catherine II, his mother, died. Such a late date is explained by the difficult relationship of the future emperor with his mother. They almost completely distanced themselves from each other, realizing that they are people with opposing views. At first, the boy was brought up as the future heir to the throne, but the older he became, the further they tried to keep him from matters of national importance.

Important! Many people had high hopes for Pavel Petrovich. His name was often heard on the lips of the rebels, for example, at. During the reign of Catherine II, many were dissatisfied with her decrees and laws.

Transformations

Numerous reforms characterize the reign of Paul 1: domestic and foreign policy underwent a number of changes.

What important steps have been taken:

• amendments were introduced to the procedure for succession to the throne, which was developed. Only sons or brothers began to enjoy the rights to the throne ruling dynasty descending, or by seniority;
• the emperor's associates received the titles of senior officials or senators;
• associates of Catherine II were removed from their posts;
• the activities of the highest state bodies have undergone changes for the better;
• next to the palace they put a box for petitions, and also installed visiting days for peasants who could openly leave complaints against their owners;
• abolition of corporal punishment for older people over 70 years of age;
• instead of the burdensome grain service for the peasants, a financial levy was introduced. Debts of 7 million rubles were written off;
• it was forbidden to force peasants to work on holidays and weekends;
• corvee is limited - now it lasted 3 days a week;
• the sale of landless peasants and householders was banned. If the owner treated the serfs inhumanely, the governors were obliged to carry out secret arrests and send the offenders to the monastery.
• for 4 years, 6,000 thousand state peasants were transferred to the nobles, since the emperor believed that their life was worse than that of serfs;
• the cost of salt and food products in stores was reduced - the lack was compensated by money from the treasury.

When Paul came to power, one of major areas his activities turned out to be an infringement of the privileges and rights of the nobles.

He ordered all the children of the nobility who were in them to return to the regiments, forbade the unauthorized transfer to the civil service from the army without the permission of the Senate, approved by him personally.

The nobles had to pay new taxes, the money from which was sent to support the local administration.

The right was abolished, according to which the nobleman turned to him with complaints and requests: now it was allowed to do this only with the permission of the governor. The punishment of noble people with sticks was reintroduced.

Immediately after accession to the throne, the emperor declared an amnesty, but multiple punishments soon followed. Decrees of Paul the First, limiting the power of the nobility, caused anger and enmity on the part of the privileged class. Over time, the first conspiracies began to appear in the highest guard circles in order to overthrow the autocrat.

Peculiarities of conducting foreign policy

Initially, it was declared at court that neutrality would be observed with respect to France. He always dreamed that wars would be solely for the purpose of defense. However, he was an opponent of the revolutionary sentiments of this country. With countries such as Sweden, Denmark and Prussia, friendly relations were concluded, which was the result of the creation of an anti-French coalition consisting of:

• Russia,
• kingdom of naples,
• Austria,
• England.

In Italy, commander A.V. Suvorov led the domestic expeditionary corps. In just six months, he won a victory in Italy over the French troops, after which he entered Sweden, where he joined the corps of General A.M. Rimsky-Korsakov.

In the same period, the squadron of F.F. Ushakova achieved several naval victories, as a result of which the Ionian Islands became free. However, the Russian-English corps, located in Holland, could not achieve its plans, as a result of which it returned. At the same time, only Russia's allies reaped the fruits of their victories over Napoleon, which caused the rupture of allied ties with Austria and England. The emperor, outraged by the position of England, decided to get closer to France.

Cause of the emperor's death

A conspiracy was formed against the reigning emperor. It was headed by the Zubov brothers, the military governor of St. Petersburg P.A.

Palen and others. The reason for the conspiracy is the internal policy of the autocrat, because he alleviated the position of the peasants and at the same time limited the rights and privileges of the nobility.

Among the conspirators was Alexander Pavlovich, who was promised that his father would be left alive.

Under the leadership of Count Palen on the night of March 12, 1801 the conspirators broke into Mikhailovsky Castle, got to the imperial chambers and put forward a demand to leave the throne. Having heard from Paul the refusal to abdicate, the conspirators killed the autocrat.

There were several conspiracies during the life and reign of the emperor. So, three cases of unrest observed in the troops were recorded. After the coronation of the new emperor, the Kanal shop was formed - secret organization, whose participants sought to kill the ruler. After the disclosure of this conspiracy, all those who took part in it were sent to hard labor or exiled. All materials related to the course of the investigation of the conspiracy were destroyed.

It was officially announced that Emperor Paul 1 had died from apoplexy.

Paul 1st - reign of the king, reforms

The reign of Tsar Paul 1st - domestic and foreign policy, results

Board results

How long did Paul 1 rule? His reign lasted for several years, years of reign: from April 5, 1797. to March 12, 1801. In such a short period of time, there were no significant changes in Russian society, although the emperor tried to introduce as many new measures as possible. At the beginning of the reign, favorable conditions were created for the development of industry and trade, but by the end of the reign, internal trade was in chaos and devastation, and external trade was almost completely destroyed.

Attention! The state was in a sad state when Paul I was assassinated.

Who ruled after Paul 1? His first-born Alexander 1 became the heir to the throne. His reign turned out to be more successful: the first step was taken, the State Council was created, and Napoleon was defeated in 1812, the Russian army distinguished itself in other foreign campaigns. was more successful.

The story of Paul 1 actually began with the fact that Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, the premarital daughter of Catherine the Great (who was supposedly a Baltic peasant by birth), without her own children, invited the future father of Paul to Russia. He was a native German city Kiel, K. P. Ulrich of Holstein-Gottorp, Duke, who received the name of Peter at baptism. This fourteen-year-old (at the time of the invitation) young man was Elizabeth's nephew and had rights to both the Swedish and Russian thrones.

Who was the father of Paul the First - a mystery

Tsar Paul 1, like all people, could not choose his parents. His future mother arrived in Russia from Prussia at the age of 15, on the recommendation of Frederick II, as a potential bride for Duke Ulrich. Here she received an Orthodox name, married in 1745, and only nine years later gave birth to a son, Paul. History has left a double opinion about the possible father of Paul the First. Some believe that Catherine hated her husband, so paternity is attributed to Catherine's lover Sergei Saltykov. Others believe that Ulrich (Peter the Third) was still the father, since there is an obvious portrait resemblance, and Catherine’s strong dislike for her son is also known, which may have arisen from hatred for his father. Pavel disliked his mother, too, throughout his life. A genetic examination of the remains of Paul has not yet been carried out, so it is not possible to accurately establish paternity for this Russian tsar.

Birth celebrated throughout the year

The future emperor Paul 1 was deprived of parental love and attention since childhood, since his grandmother Elizabeth, immediately after his birth, took her son from Catherine and transferred her to the care of nannies and teachers. He was a long-awaited child for the whole country, since after Peter the Great, the Russian autocrats had problems with the succession of power due to the lack of heirs. Festivities and fireworks on the occasion of his birth in Russia continued for a whole year.

The first victim of the palace conspiracy

Elizabeth thanked Catherine for the birth of a child with a very large amount - 100 thousand rubles, but showed her son to her mother only six months after his birth. Due to the absence of a mother nearby and the stupidity of the overzealous staff serving him, Pavel 1, whose domestic and foreign policy in the future was not logical, grew up very impressionable, painful and nervous. At the age of 8 (in 1862), the young prince lost his father, who, having come to power in 1861 after the death of Elizabeth Petrovna, was killed a year later as a result of a palace conspiracy.

More than thirty years before legal power

Tsar Paul 1 received a very decent education for his time, which he could not put into practice for many years. From the age of four, even under Elizabeth, he was taught to read and write, then he mastered several foreign languages, knowledge of mathematics, applied sciences and history. Among his teachers were F. Bekhteev, S. Poroshin, N. Panin, and the future Metropolitan of Moscow Platon taught him the laws. By birthright, Pavel already in 1862 had the right to the throne, but his mother, instead of a regency, came to power herself with the help of the guard, declared herself Catherine II and ruled for 34 years.

Emperor Paul 1 was married twice. The first time was at the age of 19 on Augustine-Wilhelmina (Natalya Alekseevna), who died in childbirth with her child. The second time - in the year of the death of the first wife (at the insistence of Catherine) on Sophia-August-Louise, the Wurttember princess (Maria Feodorovna), who will give birth to Paul's ten children. His older children will suffer the same fate as his own - they will be taken to their upbringing by the reigning grandmother, and he will rarely see them. In addition to children born in a church marriage, Pavel had a son, Semyon, from his first love - the maid of honor Sofya Ushakova and a daughter from L. Bagart.

Mother wanted to deprive him of the throne

Pavel 1 Romanov ascended the throne at the age of 42, after the death of his mother (Catherine died of a stroke) in November 1796. By this time, he had a set of views and habits that determined his future and the future of Russia until 1801. Thirteen years before the death of Catherine, in 1783, he reduced his relationship with his mother to a minimum (it was rumored that she wanted to deprive him of the right to the throne) and in Pavlovsk began to build his own model of the state. At the age of 30, at the insistence of Catherine, he became acquainted with the works of Voltaire, Hume, Montesquieu, and others.

Coalitions with Europe during the reign

At the same time, in Gatchina, removed from business at that time, the future emperor was engaged in training military battalions. His love for military affairs and discipline will partly determine what will be the foreign policy of Paul 1. And it will be quite peaceful, compared to the time of Catherine II, but inconsistent. First, Pavel fought against revolutionary France (with the participation of A. V. Suvorov) together with Britain, Turkey, Austria, and others, then broke off the alliance with Austria and withdrew troops from Europe. Attempts to go with the expedition together with England to the Netherlands were unsuccessful.

Paul 1 defended the Order of Malta

After in 1799 Bonaparte in France concentrated all power in his hands and the possibility of the spread of the revolution disappeared, he began to look for allies in other states. And I found them, including in the face of the Russian emperor. At that time, a coalition of joint fleets was discussed with France. The foreign policy of Paul 1 towards the end of his reign was connected with the final formation of a coalition against Britain, which became too aggressive at sea (attacked Malta, while Paul was the Grand Master of the Order of Malta). So, in 1800, an alliance was concluded between Russia and a number of European states, which led a policy of armed neutrality towards England.

Utopian military projects

Paul 1, whose domestic and foreign policy was not always clear even to his entourage, wanted to harm Britain and its Indian possessions at that time. He organized an expedition to Central Asia from the Donskoy army (about 22.5 thousand people) and set the task for them to go to the Indus and Ganges region and “disturb” the British there, without touching those who oppose the British. By that time, there were not even maps of that area yet, so the campaign to India was stopped in 1801, after the death of Pavel, and the soldiers were returned from the steppes near Astrakhan, where they had already reached.

The reign of Paul 1 was marked by the fact that during these five years no foreign invasions were carried out into the territory of Russia, but no conquests were made either. In addition, the emperor, taking care of the interests of the knights in Malta, almost dragged the country into direct conflict with the most powerful maritime power of that time - England. The British were perhaps his greatest enemies, while he had great sympathy for Prussia, considering the organization of the army and life in those lands his ideal (which is not surprising, given his origin).

Reducing public debt by fire

Paul 1 was aimed at trying to improve life and strengthen order in Russian reality. In particular, he believed that the treasury belongs to the country, and not to him personally, as the sovereign. Therefore, he gave the order to melt down some silver sets from the Winter Palace into coins and burn part of the paper money for two million rubles in order to reduce the state debt. He was more open to the people than his predecessors, and even his followers, hanging on the fence of his palace a box for submitting petitions addressed to him, where caricatures of the king himself and lampoons often fell.

Strange ceremonies with dead bodies

The reign of Paul 1 was also marked by reforms in the army, where he introduced single form, chartered, unified armament, believing that in the days of his mother the army was not an army, but simply a crowd. In general, historians believe that much of what Paul did, he did in spite of his deceased mother. There were even more than strange cases. For example, having come to power, he removed the remains of his murdered father, Peter III, from the grave. After that, he crowned the ashes of his father and the corpse of his mother, placing the crown on the coffin of his father, while his wife, Maria Feodorovna, placed another crown on the deceased Catherine. After that, both coffins were transported to Peter and Paul Cathedral, while the murderer of Peter the Third, Count Orlov, carried the imperial crown in front of his coffin. The remains were buried with a single burial date.

Pavel 1, whose years of reign were short, due to such events, gained misunderstanding among many. And the innovations he introduced in various areas did not arouse support from the environment. The emperor demanded from all the fulfillment of their duties. A story is known when he gave the rank of officer to his batman because the first one did not independently carry his military ammunition. After such cases, discipline in the troops began to increase. Pavel also tried to instill strict rules in the civilian population, introducing bans on wearing certain styles of dress and demanding to wear German-style clothes of a certain color with a given collar size.

The internal policy of Paul 1 also touched the sphere of education, in which, as expected, he contributed to the improvement of the position of the Russian language. After accession to the throne, the emperor banned ornate phrases, ordering to express himself in writing with the utmost clarity and simplicity. He reduced French influence on Russian society by banning books in this language (revolutionary, as he considered it), even forbidding playing cards. In addition, during his reign, it was decided to open many schools and colleges, restore the university in Dorpat, and open the Medical and Surgical Academy in St. Petersburg. Among his associates were both gloomy personalities, like Arakcheev, and G. Derzhavin, A. Suvorov, N. Saltykov, M. Speransky and others.

How did the king help the peasants?

However, Paul 1, whose reign was 1796-1801, was rather unpopular than popular with his contemporaries. Taking care of the peasants, whom he rightly considered the breadwinners of all other classes of society, he introduced free farmers from work on Sunday. By this, he incurred the discontent of the landowners, for example, in Russia, and the discontent of the peasants in Ukraine, where there was no corvee at that time, but it appeared for three days. The landowners were also dissatisfied with the ban on separating peasant families during the sale, the ban on cruel treatment, the removal of duties from peasants to keep horses for the army and the sale of bread and salt from state stocks at reduced prices. Paul 1, whose domestic and foreign policy was contradictory, at the same time ordered the peasants to obey the landlords in everything under pain of punishment.

Infringement of the privileges of the nobility

The Russian autocrat tossed between prohibitions and permits, which, perhaps, led to the subsequent assassination of Paul 1. He closed all private printing houses so that it would not be possible to spread the ideas of the French revolution, but at the same time he gave shelter to high-ranking French nobles, such as Prince Condé or the future Ludwig VIII . He forbade corporal punishment for the nobles, but introduced for them twenty rubles per soul and a tax on the maintenance of organs. local government.

The short reign of Paul 1 included such events as a ban on the resignation of nobles who had served less than a year, a ban on filing collective petitions of the nobility, the abolition of noble assemblies in the provinces, lawsuits against nobles who evaded service. The emperor also allowed state-owned peasants to register as tradesmen and merchants, which caused dissatisfaction with the latter.

Actually founded dog breeding in Russia

What other acts did Paul 1 go down in history, whose domestic and foreign policy is a thirst for large-scale transformations? This Russian tsar allowed the construction of churches according to the Old Believer faith (everywhere), forgave the Poles who participated in the Kosciuszko uprising, began to buy new breeds of dogs and sheep abroad, in fact, founding dog breeding. Important is his law on succession to the throne, which excluded the possibility of women ascending the throne and established the order of the regency.

However, with all the positive aspects, the emperor was unpopular with the people, which created the prerequisites for repeated attempts on his life. The murder of Paul 1 was committed by officers from several regiments in March 1801. It is believed that the conspiracy against the emperor was subsidized by the government of England, which did not want the strengthening of Russia in the Maltese region. The involvement of his sons in this action was not proven, however, in the 19th century, some restrictions were introduced on the study in Russia of the reign of this emperor.

In November 1796, after the death of Catherine II, Emperor Paul 1 ascended the Russian throne. A short but extremely important and eventful the reign of one of the most mysterious and controversial figures in Russian history. In order to understand and correctly assess what happened during the four and a half years of Pavlov's reign, it must be remembered that by the time of accession to the throne, the emperor was already 42 years old, that is, he was a mature person with an established character, well-established political convictions and ideas about the needs of Russia and best ways managing it. The character and Political Views The emperor was formed in very difficult and unusual conditions.

The birth of Paul in 1754 was welcomed at the court of grandmother Elizabeth Petrovna as a long-awaited event, since the empress was extremely worried about the continuation of the dynasty. Immediately after birth, the child was taken to Elizabeth's chambers, where his parents were allowed only with her special permission. In fact, until the coup of 1762. Pavel is brought up without the participation of parents, not really knowing either his mother or his father. The latter was completely indifferent to him. It is significant that neither Paul nor Catherine was even mentioned in the manifesto about Peter's accession to the throne. Since 1761, N.I. Panin was appointed the main educator of Pavel.

Panin sincerely became attached to his pupil. Himself a supporter of the Enlightenment, he dreamed of raising Paul as an ideal sovereign for Russia. And indeed, according to the memoirs of his contemporaries, the young Pavel was a well-educated romantic youth who also believed in the ideals of enlightened absolutism. He was prepared for the state field and he grew up with the consciousness that he would have to govern Russia.

In 1773, Pavel married Princess Wilhelmina of Hesse-Darmstadt, who was named Natalya Alekseevna when she was baptized into Orthodoxy. A young man who had just left the care of teachers and educators fell in love with his young wife without memory, but happiness was short-lived - three years later Natalya Alekseevna died in childbirth. A few months later, Paul married again Princess Sophia Dorothea of ​​Württemberg, who received the name Maria Feodorovna in Orthodoxy. In 1777 their firstborn was born - the future Emperor Alexander 1, and in 1779 - the second son Konstantin. They were both taken from their parents and brought up under the supervision of a grandmother. In 1781-1782. Pavel and Maria Fedorovna traveled around Europe, where they made a favorable impression on European courts. But during the trip, Pavel behaved carelessly, openly criticizing the policies of Catherine and her favorites. Apparently, this became known to the empress, who, upon her son's return, tried to remove him from the court by presenting the Gatchina manor, where Paul spent most of his time from now on. Like Peter I in Preobrazhensky and Peter III in Oranienbaum, Pavel created his own small army in Gatchina and enthusiastically took up drill, taking the Prussian military system as a model. Discipline, order, a certain asceticism seemed to be opposed to them by the luxury and disorderly life of the St. Petersburg court. He enjoyed the unquestioning obedience of his soldiers, dreaming of a time when all of Russia would obey him in the same way. He believed that for a true autocrat, Catherine was too feminine, soft and liberal. The perniciousness of such a government was increased in his eyes by the revolutionary danger, especially after the collapse of the monarchy in France. Under these conditions, Paul saw the salvation of Russia only in the strengthening of power.

Paul's intention to deal with the rebels with the help of cannons should not, however, be considered only a manifestation of ruthlessness or political myopia. Behind this was certain system views, according to which, in order to avoid a revolution, it was necessary, with the help of military discipline and police measures, to conserve the existing regime for as long as possible, removing corrupting elements from it. According to Paul, this primarily concerned various manifestations of personal and public freedom and was expressed in the lifestyle and behavior of the nobles, in the neglect of public service, in the elements of self-government, in the excessive luxury of the court, in the relative freedom of thought and self-expression. Paul saw the reasons for the decay in the mistakes of Catherine's policy.

Paul contrasted the ideals of medieval chivalry with its ideas of nobility, fidelity, honor, courage, and service to the sovereign to the Enlightenment ideals of civil liberty.

And finally, on November 6, 1796, when the Empress died, Paul received the long-awaited crown and power. The spirit of the military changed the appearance of the court and the capital.

Domestic policy of Paul I

Already the first steps of Paul the Emperor demonstrated his intention to act in everything contrary to the policy of his mother. This desire colored, in fact, his entire reign. So, of course, it is not at all liberal sympathies that explain the release of Pavel Novikov, Radishchev, T. Kosciuszko, and with him other Poles, the change of many top officials on charges of corruption. The new emperor tried, as it were, to cross out the previous 34 years of Russian history, to declare them a complete mistake.

In domestic politics Paul, several interrelated areas are distinguished - the reform government controlled, changes in estate policy and military reform. At first glance, the reform of public administration carried out by Paul, as well as the policy of Catherine, was aimed at further centralization of power, but this task was solved differently. So, if under Catherine the importance of the Prosecutor General of the Senate, which was in charge of many state affairs, including all financial policy, was especially strengthened, then under Paul the Prosecutor General turned into, as it were, a prime minister, concentrating in his hands the functions of the ministers of the interior. , justice, partially finance.

A further change in the functions of the Senate as a whole, for which Catherine in her later projects was essentially preparing the role of a body of supreme legal supervision, is associated with the reorganization of central and local government. Back in the 80s. a number of boards were liquidated and only three were left - the Military. Admiralty and Foreign Affairs. This was due to the fact that, declaring freedom of entrepreneurship, Catherine believed it possible to transfer the minimum necessary control over the development of the economy into the hands of local authorities. Paul restored some colleges, considering, however, it is necessary to transform them into ministries, replacing the principle of collegial government with a sole one. So, in 1797, a completely new Ministry of Appanages was created, which was in charge of the lands that belonged directly to the royal family, and in 1800 - the Ministry of Commerce. Even more decisively, Paul destroyed the entire system of local government, created on the basis of the Institutions of 1775.

Firstly, the positions of governors were eliminated, who, in the opinion of the new emperor, enjoyed too much independence. Secondly, the orders of public charity, the council of deanery were closed; the city estate administration was merged with the police, the city dumas were liquidated. The judicial system created by Catherine was also reformed: a number of judicial instances were completely liquidated, and the chambers of civil and criminal courts were merged into one. In this regard, the role of the Senate as a judicial body has again increased.

Pavel also changed the administrative-territorial division of the country, the principles of managing the outskirts of the empire. So, 50 provinces were transformed into 41 provinces and the Don Army Region. The Baltic provinces, Ukraine and some other outlying territories were returned to the traditional governing bodies. All these transformations are obviously contradictory: on the one hand, they increase the centralization of power in the hands of the king, eliminate the elements of self-government, on the other hand, they reveal a return to a variety of forms of government on the national outskirts. This contradiction arose primarily from the weakness of the new regime, the fear of not holding the whole country in its hands, as well as the desire to gain popularity in areas where there was a threat of outbreaks of the national liberation movement. And, of course, there was a desire to redo everything in a new way. It is significant that the content of Paul's judicial reform and the liquidation of the organs of class self-government meant for Russia, in fact, a step back. This reform affected not only the urban population, but also the nobility.

The attack on the privileges of the nobility, legalized by the Charter of Letters of 1785, began almost from the first days of Paul's reign. Already in 1797, a review was announced for all officers on the lists of regiments, and those who did not appear were dismissed. This measure was due to the fact that under Catherine there was a custom to enroll minor noble children in the regiment, so that by the age of majority they would already have officer ranks. Also, big number officers were considered sick, on vacation, etc. In addition, many of the highest dignitaries of the state, along with positions in the state apparatus, had general ranks and were listed in various, as a rule, guard regiments. Therefore, the measure taken by Paul looked quite reasonable and fair, although it embittered the nobles. It was followed by the restriction of the privileges of non-serving nobles. Having requested lists of such nobles in August 1800, Paul ordered that most of them be assigned to military service. Prior to this, from October 1799, a procedure was established according to which, for the transition from military service for civil, special permission from the Senate was required. By another decree of the emperor, non-serving nobles were forbidden to participate in noble elections and hold elected positions.

In 1799, provincial noble assemblies were abolished, the rights of district assemblies were limited, and, conversely, the right of governors to interfere in noble elections was strengthened. In 1797, the nobles were obliged to pay a special tax for the maintenance of the provincial administration, and in 1799 the amount levied was increased. Historians are also aware of cases of the use of corporal punishment for the nobility, which Catherine abolished in Pavlovian times. But in general, it would be a mistake to consider Paul's policy as anti-noble. Rather, it traces a clear desire to turn the nobility into a knighthood - disciplined, organized, without exception serving and devoted to their sovereign. It is no coincidence that Paul made an attempt to limit the influx of non-nobles into the ranks of the nobility, forbidding them to be promoted to non-commissioned officers. From these positions, the emperor's policy towards the peasantry also becomes clearer.

The Pavlovian reign, like the previous one, was marked by mass distributions of peasants as a reward for service, and in four years Paul managed to distribute almost as many peasants as his mother for 34 (about 600 thousand). However, the difference was not only in quantity. If Catherine gave her favorites either estates that were left without an owner, or estates in the newly conquered territories, then Paul gave away, first of all, state peasants, thereby significantly worsening their situation. Declaring at the beginning of his reign that every subject has the right to file a complaint personally with him, Paul severely suppressed such attempts on the part of the peasants. In December 1796, a decree was issued on assigning peasants to private owners in the Don Cossack Region and in Novorossia, in March 1798 - on allowing merchant breeders to buy peasants to their enterprises with and without land. On the other hand, a number of legislative acts appeared that objectively contributed to the weakening of serfdom. So, in February 1797. the sale of yard and landless peasants by auction was prohibited, in October 1798 - Ukrainian peasants without land. For the first time in many years, when Paul came to the throne, the serfs had to take the oath to the new emperor along with the freemen; in December 1797, the arrears in the head tax were removed from the peasants and philistines, and the recruitment recruitment appointed by Catherine was canceled. The most famous is the so-called Manifesto on the three-day corvee, published by Paul along with other important documents on the day of his coronation on April 5, 1797.

It is noteworthy that the main meaning of the manifesto is related to the prohibition of work on Sundays. i.e., it confirms the legal norm that already existed in the Council Code of 1649. The restriction of corvée to three days in the Manifesto is rather spoken of as a desirable, more rational distribution of the working time of farmers. The obscurity of the manifesto led to an ambiguous interpretation by both contemporaries and historians. The peasants took the manifesto as an alleviation of their situation and tried to complain about the landowners who did not comply with it. Cases are known when landowners were indeed subjected to penalties and punishments for this.

However, the fact that the manifesto was not executed should not be discounted. Moreover, in some areas, for example in the Ukraine, where corvee was limited to two days a week, the manifesto, on the contrary, worsened the situation of the peasants. The obscurity of the manifesto was most likely deliberate. First, Paul, fearing peasant uprisings, tried to prevent them by populist measures, and secondly, acquired another instrument of pressure on the nobles. Thirdly, he also could not openly weaken the oppression of serfdom, since the dependence of the throne on the nobility was great, and he most likely had no such intentions.

Paul's policy towards the army looked more definite, to which he decided to transfer the Prussian military order, which he had so successfully used in Gatchina. The reform began with the introduction new form, completely copying the Prussian: a long uniform, stockings and black patent leather shoes, a powdered head with a scythe of a certain length; the officers were given sticks with bone heads to punish the guilty soldiers. In December 1796, a new charter was issued, in which the main attention was paid to the training of soldiers in “shagistics”. Since the Prussian charter of 1760 served as its basis, no new achievements of Russian military thought, tested on the battlefields during the period of Catherine's reign, were reflected in it. Soon, several more charters were issued for individual branches of the military, based on the idea of ​​​​the army as a machine, the main thing in which is the mechanical coherence of the troops, diligence. Initiative and independence are harmful and unacceptable.

Endless parades, drill, combined with harsh measures against officers - dismissals, exile and even arrests - caused great discontent in the army, not only in the capital, but also in the provinces. So, already in 1796-1798. in the Smolensk province there was an anti-government circle, which included officers of several regiments stationed there, officials of local institutions, as well as a number of retired military men.

Speaking about the domestic policy of Paul I, we should mention some of his innovations related to the status of the sovereign and royal family. On the day of his coronation, Paul published a decree on succession to the throne, establishing the succession of the throne through inheritance strictly through the male line. The decree continued to operate in Russia until 1917. The creation of the already mentioned Ministry of Appanages was also new, which meant the actual inclusion of the personal economy of the royal family in the sphere of state jurisdiction. Convinced of the divine origin royal power, Paul did a lot to organize the external manifestations of the monarchical idea. He was a great lover of various ceremonies and rituals, which were carried out scrupulously, observing the smallest details, were distinguished by extraordinary pomp and lasted for many hours. The whole life of the court was given a strictly regulated ritual, which was even more intensified with the proclamation of Paul in 1798 as Grand Master of the Order of Malta. It should be noted, however, that all this Europeanized ritualism was alien to Russia, and even in Europe itself it was already perceived as archaic, and therefore caused only smiles among most contemporaries, in no way contributing to the goals of glorifying the monarchy, which Paul set himself.

Petty regulation extended to everyday life subjects. In particular, certain styles and sizes of clothing were prescribed by special decrees, it was forbidden to wear round hats, shoes with ribbons instead of buckles, etc. Some prohibitions related to appearance and behavior at the ball. Characteristically, all these restrictions applied not only to Russian citizens, but also to foreigners. Thus, the charge d'affaires of Sardinia in Russia was expelled from St. Petersburg for wearing a round hat.

In Paul's policy, one can clearly see the desire to unify all spheres of life, to exclude the diversity of opinions, judgments, the possibility of choosing a way of life, behavior, clothing, etc. In this very possibility, Paul saw a revolutionary danger. The introduction of censorship and a ban on the import of books from abroad were aimed at combating the penetration of revolutionary ideas.

Foreign policy of Paul I

Relations with France became the main foreign policy problem of the Pavlovian reign. The war with her was prepared by Catherine II. It was supposed to send in 1797 to Europe a 50,000th corps under the command of Suvorov. The death of Catherine caused the cancellation of this campaign. The French saw this as a sign of a change in Russia's attitude towards their country and tried to seize the moment to exclude Russia from among their potential enemies. However, they were wrong. From the first months of his reign, Paul made it clear that his hatred of republican France was no weaker than Catherine's. In 1797, Russia accepts regiments of French monarchists under the command of Prince Conde (a relative of the executed Louis XVI century), receives the French king in exile Louis XVIII and determines for him an annual pension of 200,000 rubles. In 1798, entry into Russia was prohibited for all immigrants from France. However, this was not enough. The countries of Europe, fearful of the victorious troops of France, made every possible diplomatic effort to involve Russia in the war. In 1798, a second anti-French coalition was created (Russia, Austria, Great Britain, Turkey, Sicily, Portugal and the South German states). One of the reasons for Russia's entry into the coalition was the capture of Malta by Bonaparte and the expulsion of the Order of Malta (the Order of St. John), after which Paul took him under his protection and promised to avenge the insult inflicted on the Order. The war was to be fought in three theaters: 1. in Holland, together with England; 2. in Italy (the main forces under the command of Suvorov were sent here) together with Austria and 3. in the Mediterranean Sea (Ushakov's fleet) together with England and Turkey.

Already in the autumn of 1798, the Russian-Turkish squadron under the command of F.F. Ushakova went to the Mediterranean Sea to act against the French. The English squadron under the command of the famous Nelson acted independently against the garrison of Malta. Nakhimov concentrated his efforts on capturing the Ionian Islands, which had great importance in the struggle for dominance in the Mediterranean. The apogee of the struggle for the islands was the assault on the fortress on the island of Corfu (Kerkyra) on February 18, 1799. The islands liberated by Ushakov formed the Republic of Seven Islands - the first in new history Greek state. After that, Russian naval detachments landed in various parts Southern and Central Italy, captured Naples and Rome. In January 1800, the Russian squadron was recalled by Paul to Russia due to a change in the political situation.

Combat operations on land unfolded in 1799. In Holland, a joint Russian-English landing under the command of the Duke of York, more than twice the strength of the French, acted indecisively and ultimately failed. The Allies intended to inflict the main blow on the French in Italy, where large forces of the Russian and Austrian armies were concentrated. The overall command was transferred to Suvorov, but the subordination of the Austrians was rather formal. in just one month - April 1799 Suvorov defeated the French army of General Moreau and captured all of Northern Italy (except Genoa). The army of General MacDonald went to the rescue of Moro from southern Italy. Suvorov decided not to wait until the two enemy armies unite and break them piece by piece. He made a swift march towards MacDonald and defeated him in the battle on the river. Trebbii (June 6-9, 1799). Now Suvorov had a great opportunity to finish off the remnants of Moro's troops, but the French were saved by the indecision of the Austrians, who forbade any risky operations. Only at the end of July did the Austrian troops unite with the Russians, and already on August 4 at Novi there was a battle with the French army, the new commander-in-chief of which was General Joubert (died in battle). After this victory, Suvorov became master of Italy. The inconsistency of the allies again saved from the complete defeat of the French (the Austrian gofkriegsrat forbade his troops to participate in the pursuit of the retreating). Russian relations with the Austrians deteriorated to such an extent that their governments decided to henceforth act separately. It was decided that the Russians would cross into Switzerland, while the Austrians would remain in Italy. At the end of August, Suvorov led his troops on the famous Swiss campaign (September - October 1799).

In Switzerland, in the Zurich area, it was supposed to connect with the 30,000th corps of the gene. Rimsky-Korsakov. However, at a time when Suvorov's troops, knocking down French barriers, were approaching the Alps, Rimsky-Korsakov's corps was already defeated. Abandoned by their Austrian allies, the Russians lost 18 thousand people, almost all the guns and banners. It was the worst defeat of the Russian army in the entire 18th century. Having defeated Rimsky-Korsakov, the French considered Suvorov doomed, because. his troops fell into a trap (both in front and behind enemies). To save the army, Suvorov decided to try to break through the Alps, which were considered completely impassable for large masses of troops. At the cost of incredible efforts, Suvorov on October 19 withdrew his army to Bavaria. Here he received an order from Paul to return to Russia. The alliance with Austria was dissolved. For outstanding military distinctions, Suvorov received the title of Generalissimo and the title of Prince of Italy. It was ordered to give him royal honors, even in the presence of the emperor himself. This was the last and, perhaps, the most brilliant campaign of Suvorov. Shortly after returning to Russia, he died.

Disappointed in his allies (who, moreover, were greatly weakened), after the coup of 18 Brumaire (November 9, 1799) in France, Paul began to lean towards rapprochement with Napoleon. In the next 1800, both sides took steps towards mutual rapprochement. In particular, France released all Russian prisoners, and Bonaparte turned to Paul with a proposal to establish friendly relations between the two sides. This appeal caused the consent of Paul and on the eve of the new 1801, 22,500 Don Cossacks were sent to conquer India. In the development of this new line in relation to France, Paul I demanded that Louis XVIII leave the country and deprived him of his pension.

Coup of March 11, 1801

It is quite possible that if Paul's transformations concerned only the sphere of administrative and police administration and were carried out carefully and consistently, his fate would have been different. But society, which had already tasted the fruits of "enlightened absolutism," did not want to part with that, albeit minimal, freedom that it had acquired during Catherine's reign. In addition, the impetuous, quick-tempered, fickle and unpredictable nature of the emperor created an atmosphere of uncertainty about the future, when the fate of the Russian nobleman turned out to be dependent on a random whim or a change in the mood of someone who was seen only as a petty tyrant on the throne, and if in the preparation of the previous coups of the 18th century. the decisive role belonged to the guards, now the discontent engulfed virtually the entire army. Find support in any social order Paul failed.

Paul's fate was thus sealed. The conspiracy was actually maturing from the very beginning of his reign, and many dignitaries, courtiers, senior officers, and even the heir to the throne were involved in it (or at least aware of it). Grand Duke Alexander Pavlovich. Fatal for Pavel was the night of March 11, 1801, when several dozen conspirators broke into the emperor's chambers in the newly built Mikhailovsky Castle and killed him. Alexander I was proclaimed emperor of all Russia.

Historians, as already mentioned, evaluate the Pavlovian reign in different ways, equally agreeing that the continued existence of the Pavlovian regime would delay the socio-political development of Russia. There is also a point of view according to which Paul's policy corresponded to the interests of the absolute monarchy, and the means he chose corresponded to the set goal. The reign of Alexander I new era in the history of Russia. For with the murder of Paul ended National history XVIII century.

wiki.304.ru / History of Russia. Dmitry Alkhazashvili.

S.S. Schukin "Portrait of Emperor Paul I"

Pavel I Petrovich, Emperor of All Russia, son of Peter III and Catherine II, was born on September 20, 1754 in the Summer Palace of Elizabeth Petrovna in St. Petersburg.

Childhood

Immediately after his birth, he came under the full care of his grandmother, Elizaveta Petrovna, who took over all the worries about his upbringing, effectively removing his mother. But Elizabeth was notable for her inconstancy of character and soon cooled off towards the heir, transferring him to the care of nannies, who were only concerned that the child would not catch a cold, hurt himself or be naughty. In early childhood, a boy with an ardent imagination was intimidated by nannies: later he was always afraid of the dark, shuddered at a knock or an incomprehensible rustle, believed in omens, fortune-telling and dreams.

In the fifth year of his life, the boy began to be taught grammar and arithmetic, his first teacher F.D. Bekhteev used an original technique for this: he wrote letters and numbers on wooden and tin soldiers and, lining them up in lines, taught the heir to read and count.

Education

Since 1760, Count N.I. Panin, who was his teacher before the marriage of the heir. Despite the fact that Pavel preferred military sciences, he received a fairly good education: he easily explained himself in French and German, knew Slavic and latin languages, Horace read in the original, in the process of reading he made extracts from books. He had a rich library, a physics office with a collection of minerals, a lathe for manual labor. He knew how to dance well, fence, was fond of horseback riding.

O.A. Leonov "Paul I"

N.I. Panin, himself a passionate admirer of Frederick the Great, raised his heir in the spirit of admiration for everything Prussian to the detriment of the national Russian. But, according to contemporaries, in his youth, Paul was capable, striving for knowledge, romantically inclined, with an open character, who sincerely believed in the ideals of goodness and justice. After the accession to the throne of the mother in 1762, their relationship was quite close. However, they got worse over time. Catherine feared her son, who had more legal rights to the throne than she herself. Rumors about his accession spread throughout the country, E. I. Pugachev called out to him as a “son”. The Empress tried not to allow the Grand Duke to participate in the discussion of state affairs, and he began to more and more critically evaluate the policy of his mother. Ekaterina simply “did not notice” the age of her son, without marking it in any way.

Maturity

In 1773, Pavel married the Hesse-Darmstadt princess Wilhelmina (baptized Natalia Alekseevna). In this regard, his education was completed, and he had to be involved in state affairs. But Catherine did not consider this necessary.

In October 1766, Natalya Alekseevna, whom Pavel loved very much, died in childbirth with a baby, and Catherine insisted that Pavel marry a second time, which he did, going to Germany. The second wife of Paul is the Württemberg princess Sophia-Dorotea-Augusta-Louise (baptized Maria Feodorovna). The encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron says this about Paul’s future position: “And after that, during the whole life of Catherine, the place occupied by Paul in government spheres was the place of an observer, aware of the right to supreme leadership of affairs and deprived of the opportunity to use this right for changes in even the smallest detail in the course of affairs. This situation was especially conducive to the development of a critical mood in Paul, which acquired a particularly sharp and bilious tone due to the personal element that entered him in a wide stream ... "

Russian coat of arms during the reign of Paul I

In 1782, Pavel Petrovich and Maria Fedorovna went on a trip abroad and were warmly received in European capitals. Pavel even gained a reputation there as a "Russian Hamlet". During the trip, Paul openly criticized his mother's policies, which she soon became aware of. Upon the return of the grand ducal couple to Russia, the Empress gave them Gatchina, where the “small courtyard” moved and where Paul, who inherited from his father a passion for everything military in the Prussian manner, created his small army, conducting endless maneuvers and parades. He languished in inactivity, made plans for his future reign and made repeated and unsuccessful attempts to engage in state activities: in 1774, he submits to the empress a note drawn up under the influence of Panin and entitled "Discourse on the state regarding the defense of all limits." Catherine rated her as naive and disapproving of her policies. In 1787, Pavel asked his mother for permission to volunteer for Russian-Turkish war, but she refuses him under the pretext of the approaching birth of Maria Feodorovna. Finally, in 1788, he takes part in the Russian-Swedish war, but even here Catherine accused him of the fact that the Swedish prince Karl was looking for rapprochement with him - and she recalled her son from the army. It is not surprising that gradually his character becomes suspicious, nervous, bilious and despotic. He retires to Gatchina, where he spends 13 years almost without a break. The only thing left for him is to do what he loves: organizing and training "amusing" regiments, consisting of several hundred soldiers, according to the Prussian model.

Catherine hatched plans to remove him from the throne, citing his bad temper and inability. She saw her grandson Alexander, son of Paul, on the throne. This intention was not destined to come true due to the sudden illness and death of Empress Catherine II in November 1796.

on the throne

The new emperor immediately tried, as it were, to cross out everything done during the 34 years of the reign of Catherine II, to destroy the hated orders of Catherine's reign - this became one of the most important motives of his policy. He also tried to stop the influence of revolutionary France on the minds of Russians. It was in this direction that his policy was deployed.

First of all, he ordered to remove from the crypt of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra the remains of Peter III, his father, who were buried in Peter and Paul Fortress together with the coffin of Catherine II. On April 4, 1797, Pavel was solemnly crowned in the Dormition Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. On the same day, several decrees were promulgated, the most important of which were: the "Law on the Succession to the Throne", which assumed the transfer of the throne according to the principle of pre-Petrine times, and the "Institution on the Imperial Family", which determined the procedure for keeping the persons of the reigning house.

The reign of Paul I lasted 4 years and 4 months. It was somewhat chaotic and inconsistent. He's been "kept on a leash" for too long. And so the leash was removed ... He tried to correct the shortcomings of the hated former regime, but did it inconsistently: he restored the Petrine collegiums liquidated by Catherine II, limited local self-government, issued a number of laws leading to the destruction of noble privileges ... They could not forgive him for this.

In decrees of 1797, landowners were recommended to perform a 3-day corvee, it was forbidden to use the labor of peasants on Sundays, it was not allowed to sell peasants under the hammer, and Little Russians - without land. It was ordered to appear in the regiments of the nobles, fictitiously enlisted in them. Since 1798 noble societies became under the control of the governors, the nobles again began to be subjected to corporal punishment for criminal offenses. But at the same time, the position of the peasants was not alleviated.

Transformations in the army began with the replacement of the "muzhik" uniforms with new ones copied from the Prussian. Wishing to improve discipline in the troops, Paul I was present daily at exercises and divorces and severely punished for the slightest mistake.

Paul I was very afraid of the penetration of the ideas of the Great French Revolution to Russia and introduced some restrictive measures: already in 1797, private printing houses were closed, strict censorship for books was introduced, a ban was imposed on French fashion, and young people were forbidden to travel abroad to study.

V. Borovikovsky "Paul I in the uniform of Colonel of the Preobrazhensky Regiment"

Upon accession to the throne, Paul, in order to emphasize the contrast with his mother, declared peacefulness and non-interference in European affairs. However, when in 1798 there was a threat of Napoleon recreating an independent Polish state, Russia took an active part in organizing the anti-French coalition. In the same year, Paul assumed the duties of the Master of the Order of Malta, thus challenging the French emperor, who had captured Malta. In this regard, the Maltese octagonal cross was included in the state emblem. In 1798-1800, Russian troops successfully fought in Italy, and the Russian fleet fought in the Mediterranean, which caused concern from Austria and England. Relations with these countries finally deteriorated in the spring of 1800. At the same time, rapprochement with France began, and a plan for a joint campaign against India was even discussed. Without waiting for the signing of the corresponding agreement, Pavel ordered the Don Cossacks to set out on a campaign, which were already stopped by Alexander I.

V.L. Borovikovsky "Portrait of Paul I in the crown, dalmatics and signs of the Order of Malta"

Despite the solemn promise to maintain peaceful relations with other states, given upon accession to the throne, he took an active part in the coalition with England, Austria, the Kingdom of Naples and Turkey against France. The Russian squadron under the leadership of F. Ushakov was sent to the Mediterranean Sea, where, with the Turkish squadron, they liberated the Ionian Islands from the French. In Northern Italy and Switzerland, Russian troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov won a number of brilliant victories.

The last palace coup of the outgoing era

Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg, where Paul I was assassinated

The main reasons for the coup and the death of Paul I were the infringement of the interests of the nobility and unpredictability in the actions of the emperor. Sometimes he exiled or sent people to prison for the slightest offense.

He planned to declare the 13-year-old nephew of Maria Feodorovna the heir to the throne, adopting him, and to imprison his eldest sons, Alexander and Konstantin, in a fortress. In March 1801, a ban was issued on trade with the British, which threatened damage to the landlords.

On the night of March 11-12, 1801, Pavel I Petrovich was killed by conspiring officers in the newly built Mikhailovsky Castle: the conspirators, mostly guard officers, broke into the bedroom of Paul I demanding to abdicate. When the emperor tried to object and even hit one of them, one of the rebels began to choke him with his scarf, and the other hit him on the temple with a massive snuffbox. It was announced to the people that Paul I had died of apoplexy.

Paul I and Maria Feodorovna had 10 children:

Pavel I. Part 1.

Pavel I. Part 1.

Pavel I, Andrei Filippovich Mitrokhin

And so, on the Russian throne is the great-grandson of Peter the Great, in whose veins there is very little Russian blood left. His wife, a purebred German, had already given birth to eight children by that time. None of the monarchs of the Romanov dynasty has ever ascended the throne with such “wealth”.

Pavel Romanov began his reign with an order to place guard boxes painted in Prussian colors, white and black, along the streets of the city, and put sentries in them. The police began to scurry around the city, tearing off the round hats of passers-by men and cutting off the hems of tailcoats, frock coats and overcoats - again according to the Prussian model. The townspeople, although frightened by such drastic changes, did not hesitate, however, to show their joy and satisfaction in connection with the arrival of a new autocrat.

A few days after Paul's accession to the throne, a special window was made in the lower floor of the Winter Palace, through which anyone had the right to drop a petition addressed to the emperor. The key to the room where this window was located was kept by the sovereign himself. Every morning, Pavel opened the door to this room, collected all the letters and notes dropped into the window, carefully read them, made notes. He wrote answers to petitions personally and put his signature. Then they were published in newspapers. There were cases when the petitioner was asked to apply to the court or other department, then notify the emperor of the result of this appeal. Thanks to such "correspondence" it was possible to reveal flagrant lawlessness and injustice. In such cases, the king severely punished the guilty.

S.G. Moskvitin. Emperor Paul I.

Having begun his reign with punitive orders, the new emperor approved, however, most of the senior officials and officers who served at the court of his mother. Even Osterman, the youngest son of the same Osterman, who began his service under Peter I and was severely punished by his daughter, he did not remove him from the management of foreign affairs entrusted to him by Catherine II, but appointed him chancellor.

But Paul I dismissed the servants of the former Empress. Some were sent to prison, and some were generously rewarded. He also showed mercy to those who were convicted under his mother queen, declaring a general amnesty, which, however, did not apply to those serving sentences for especially serious crimes. Alexander Radishchev returned from exile. The disgraced comrades of Emperor Peter III, as well as the officers who stood on the side of the sovereign in the fateful year 1762, were called to Petersburg. True, they were already old people, because almost thirty-five years had passed since that time. Now they were showered with honors and enjoyed the attention of the sovereign himself. Yes, times have changed...

Emperor Paul I freeing Tadeusz Kościuszko.

Pavel was also merciful to his half-brother Alexei Bobrinsky, who was born by his mother from Grigory Orlov. In 1764, Catherine almost dethroned Paul, intending to marry her lover and appoint his son as heir instead of the son of Peter, her ex-husband. But this did not happen. Alexey Bobrinsky was deprived of the right to live in the capital for his unsightly behavior and was in Livonia. Pavel returned him to Petersburg: he received him very cordially, bestowed the title of count and presented the estate. Bobrinsky, having married in 1796 Baroness Anna Ungern-Sternberg, the daughter of the commandant of Revel, moved to Estonia, where he ended his life, forgotten by everyone.

Alexei Bobrinsky in the 1800s

Count Alexei Grigorievich Bobrinsky (1762-1813)

Anna Vladimirovna Bobrinskaya (1769-1846), wife of A.G. Bobrinsky, nee Baroness Ungern-Sternberg

Sokolov Petr Fyodorovich Portrait of Countess A.V. Bobrinsky. 1827

The attitude of the new emperor towards Prince Platon Zubov can be called truly chivalrous. Of course, the last favorite had to leave the Winter Palace, but he settled in a house specially bought for him at the expense of His Majesty's office. After the prince moved to a new building, Pavel, accompanied by his wife, visited Zubov, crossing the threshold of his new house with the words: "Whoever remembers the old, get out of his sight." And when champagne was served, the emperor said: “How many drops are here, so much I wish you all the best,” and, having drunk everything to the bottom, he broke the glass on the floor. Zubov threw himself at the emperor's feet, but was raised by him with the words: "I told you: whoever remembers the old, get out of his eye." Behind the samovar, the sovereign said to the empress: "Pour tea, because he has no mistress." But Paul's favors were short-lived - major violations were uncovered in the industries that Zubov was involved in, an investigation was appointed, and the prince was forced to resign. The last favorite of Catherine II became embittered against her son and dreamed of revenge.

His Serene Highness Prince (since 1796) Platon Aleksandrovich Zubov

Opala at the beginning of the reign of Paul I touched a few. Princess Dashkova, one of the main accomplices of the June events of 1762, was given the order of Paul I to immediately leave Moscow and not appear again either in it or in St. Petersburg. This mission was carried out by the Commander-in-Chief of Moscow himself.

“At twenty-four hours? the princess asked. “Report to the sovereign that I left at twenty-four minutes.” Immediately, she ordered the carriage to be laid down and, even in the presence of the emperor who had conveyed the command to her, left her Moscow house.

The ceremonial portrait of Vorontsova-Dashkova depicts her next to books, hinting at scholarship.

Paul, remembering that his father did not follow the advice of Frederick II - to put the crown on his head as soon as possible, hastened to set the day for the coronation. He gave instructions, however, that preparations for the festivities should be made with the utmost frugality in spending money. But he did not want to put his mother's crown on his head. Therefore, in a relatively short time, the jeweler Duval made a large imperial crown and a new scepter studded with precious stones. And its main decoration was a diamond presented to Catherine II by Grigory Orlov.

The red gate through which the coronation procession traditionally followed, lithographs by Arnoux J.-B. from the original by Vivien.

The crowning of the kingdom took place in April 1797, that is, four months after the death of Empress Catherine. The solemn entry into the ancient capital took place on Palm Sunday. The weather was perfect, the sun shone like spring. The emperor, in a Prussian-style military uniform, with a powdered head and a scythe, rode on horseback, and the empress in a carriage. Troops were lined up all along the way. Covered galleries were built for spectators. For the first time in the history of Russia, two persons were crowned on the same day: the emperor and the empress, his wife, to whom Paul personally placed another small crown on her head.

Coronation of Paul I and Maria Feodorovna. Saratov State Art Museum

At the end of the church ceremony, Paul read right in the church the “Family Act on the Order of Succession” that he had drawn up and ordered this act to be kept forever in the altar of the Assumption Cathedral - the place of the coronation of Russian tsars, in a silver ark specially made for this purpose. Thus, he canceled the decree of his great-grandfather, Peter the Great, according to which the tsar himself determined his heir. From now on, the throne was to pass to the eldest in the family in the male line. Thus, once and for all, the main lawlessness in Russia was eliminated, the victim of which was himself, the natural heir of his father Peter III. Thanks to this decree, the Imperial House of Romanov will henceforth be represented only by males, passing the throne down the line. The kingdom of women is a thing of the past, although some state and public functions of the spouse Russian emperors performed. Maria Feodorovna, for example, Pavel entrusted the general leadership educational institutions in Moscow and Petersburg.

Portrait of Maria Feodorovna (1759-1828), Vladimir Lukich Borovikovsky

The emperor settled in the Winter Palace, choosing for himself and his large family the rooms he occupied when he was still a young man. He ordered them to be furnished as simply and modestly as possible, unlike the luxurious decoration of his mother's apartments.

Gerard von Kugelgen. Portrait of Paul I with his family. 1800. Pavlovsk State Museum-Reserve

A lot has been written about the personality of Paul I, as about one of the most mysterious and controversial figures in history, some consider him mentally ill, others great. His birth caused rejoicing at court, Empress Elizabeth herself took care of his upbringing, death caused both joy and sadness.

Vladimir Borovikovsky Portrait of Paul I

Portrait of Paul I in a white dalmatic, Vladimir Lukich Borovikovsky

He was eight years old when his father passed away. With a childlike instinct, he knew that something was wrong. But understanding came later. Teachers were assigned to him, who developed in him, first of all, his innate passion for military teachings and even came up with an alphabet for their student, where the letters were depicted in the form of soldiers. However, there was no clear lesson plan at the court with its magnificent festivities and entertainment. Classes were held when and how necessary, between walks, ceremonial dinners, masquerades, theatrical performances. They began to drive to the theater of the Grand Duke very early, indiscriminately, for each new performance. In general, already in childhood, Paul was looked upon as an adult, a future king.

Christinek Karl Ludwig. Portrait of Tsarevich Pavel in the costume of a Knight of the Order of St. Andrew the First-Called

Portrait of Tsarevich Pavel Petrovich

Portrait of Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich in the study room. Around 1766. GEVigilius Eriksen

Stefano Torelli Portrait of Pavel Petrovich with a black chick.

Portrait of Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich, made by an unknown artist in the 1770s.

As a ten-year-old boy, he already expressed his opinion: he confidently praised someone, openly despised someone. He treated his servants harshly. Sometimes he dressed them up in the armor of the knights of the times crusades and arranged tournaments with them. In general, Pavel was a boy with fantasies, but not strong-willed and consistent enough. By nature, he was a kind, cheerful, frisky child, but, unfortunately, he learned too early what fate befell his father, and this developed in him a complex of suspicion and fear. Disturbing visions associated with the death of his father accompanied Paul all his life.

Peter III (in the uniform of the Life Guards of the Preobrazhensky Regiment, 1762) Years of life: 1728-1762 Russian emperor in 1761-1762.

The personality of Nikita Panin had a positive impact on the upbringing of the Grand Duke. Already in his youth, Panin's student impressed with the vastness of his knowledge, intelligence and ingenuity, worship of beauty and goodness. He was fluent in Russian, French and German, well knew the works of European writers, loved painting and architecture.

Nikita Ivanovich Panin (1718-1783) - Russian diplomat and statesman, Alexander Roslin

Having married, he became an impeccable spouse, although he had to endure the drama of death and, as he was convinced, the infidelity of his first wife, Natalya Alekseevna, whose marriage lasted a little more than three years. But in the second marriage, Paul found true family happiness.

Grand Duchess Natalya Alekseevna, Princess of Hesse-Darmstadt, first wife of the future Paul I

Maria Fedorovna, Princess of Württemberg, turned out to be a wonderful wife, in love with her husband, and an impeccable mother. She had, of course, small flaws acquired in childhood.

She, for example, was so frugal that, having arrived in St. Petersburg, she did not hesitate to appropriate all the dresses of Pavel's first wife so as not to buy new ones. Why the extra spending?

Portrait of Grand Duchess Maria Feodorovna, A. Roslin

Portrait of Maria Feodorovna, A. Roslin

I.-B. Lumpy. Portrait of Grand Duchess Maria Feodorovna.

It was not typical for her to dress luxuriously and luxuriously, she rather preferred modesty and smartness. Conscious of her high role in society, Maria Fedorovna was always dressed in full dress and beautifully combed her hair. Even during her pregnancy, she wore a dress and not a bonnet like other women in her position. Tucked into a corset, she was engaged in embroidery, sewing, reading German or French literature. Pavel's wife recorded all the impressions of the day in a diary, regularly wrote letters to relatives and friends.

I.-B. Lumpy. Portrait of Grand Duchess Maria Feodorovna. 1795. Pavlovsk Museum-Reserve.

I.-B. Lumpy Sr. Portrait of Empress Maria Feodorovna. 1792

Friedrich Eugene, father of Maria Feodorovna

Duchess Frederica Dorothea of ​​Württemberg with a portrait of her eldest son Friedrich. Painting by Johann Georg Zizenis, mother

She devoted a lot of time to charitable and educational institutions. Without interfering in state affairs during the life of her mother-in-law, Maria Feodorovna began to play a prominent political role, becoming empress. Unlike Catherine II, her daughter-in-law remained a real German, she even spoke Russian with a strong German accent. However, she never tried to bring her countrymen closer to court; did not maintain close contacts with the Germans. The only exceptions were, perhaps, her childhood friend, Mrs. Benckendorff, who she brought out of her native places, and Charlotte Lieven, a teacher of her daughters, nee von Gaugreben, a woman who, according to contemporaries, was gifted with a rare mind and good heart. She managed to force the emperor himself to respect her opinion and was elevated by him to the dignity of a count.

Portrait of Anna Juliana Benckendorff (1744-1797), ur. bar. Schilling-von-Kapstadt. Miniature from the collection of Grand Duke Nikolai Mikhailovich

Charlotte Karlovna Lieven

A loving and devoted mother, Maria Fedorovna kept her children in strictness, raised them with a hard hand, although she loved with all her heart. True German technique! Even married daughters considered communication with their mother ordeal for himself, fearing her remarks. Maria Fedorovna also had a rather strong influence on her husband. They were considered an ideal couple, although outwardly they were the complete opposite. Pavel is short, balding early, with a large mouth and thick lips, a snub nose and anxious shifting eyes. He always walked with his head held high, probably to appear taller. His wife is a stately blonde with myopic eyes and a very kind smile. With all her appearance, she showed calmness and generosity. Pavel was happy in his family life.

Portraits of Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich and Grand Duchess Maria Feodorovna

Portraits of Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich and Grand Duchess Maria Feodorovna I. Pullman, 1782 - 1787, (from the original by P. Batoni, 1782)

Nikolay ARGUNOV (1771 after 1829). Portrait of Emperor Paul I.

Large ceremonial portrait of Empress Maria Feodorovna, Marie Elisabeth Louise Vigée-Lebrun

His daughter Anna later recalled how her father loved to be surrounded by children, how often he called the younger ones to play in his bedroom while he was combing his hair: this was his only free time, and he tried to spend it with the children, with whom he was always gentle and kind. If time allowed, he willingly played various games with them, especially blind man's buff. The children loved to visit their father.

Back in 1781, the couple, under the name of Count and Countess Nord, made a long trip abroad - first to Poland, and then to Vienna, Rome, Paris, Berlin, visited many foreign courts. This trip had a decisive influence on Paul's horizons. And he himself made quite a favorable impression in the West, astonishing many with his sublime mentality, curiosity, vastness of his knowledge and simplicity of tastes. He was not fond of dancing, he preferred serious music and a good performance, he loved simple cuisine, especially sausages.

D. Fossati son. Triumphal chariots in Venice in honor of the Counts of the NorthItaly 1872. Engraving painted with watercolors

A.-L.-R. Ducrot. Vel. book. Pavel Petrovich andled. book. Maria Feodorovna at the Roman Forum

Reception by Pope Pius VI of the Count and Countess of the North on February 8, 1782. 1801. Etching by A. Lazzaroni. GMZ "Pavlovsk"
At the European courts, the Grand Duke was perceived as a strict, temperate person, but even then there was some kind of duality in his character, as if there were two people in him: one is witty, cheerful, playing with dignity the role of the crown prince, the other is gloomy, capable of sharp antics and bitter remarks. He did not believe in his long life and even once said at one of the receptions that he probably would not live to be forty-five years old.

Francesco Guardi. Ladies' concert in honor of the Counts of the North. OK. 1782

Suspicion was characteristic of Paul all his life. Once, during a dinner in Tsarskoe Selo, having found glass fragments in sausages, he began to shout that they wanted to kill him, took the dish to the empress and demanded the death of those responsible. And during a trip to Europe at one of the court banquets, the taste of wine seemed suspicious to him, and he demanded to replace his glass, saying that someone was plotting to poison him. The same story repeated a few months later. After drinking ice-cold beer, he felt bad and began to reproach the owner of the house - one of the French princes - that he encroached on his life. Almost got a major political scandal.

Returning to Russia, Pavel began to make extensive plans for future reforms. Even after the first trip to Berlin a few years ago, he was amazed and sincerely saddened: “These Germans overtook us by two centuries!” he said.

Royal destinies

http://www.e-reading.ws/chapter.php/1022984/14/Grigoryan_-_Carskie_sudby.html

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/