home Botany book Causes of the struggle for the redivision of the world. The beginning of the struggle for the redivision of the world. Spanish-American and Anglo-Boer Wars. Features of the economic development of Germany

Causes of the struggle for the redivision of the world. The beginning of the struggle for the redivision of the world. Spanish-American and Anglo-Boer Wars. Features of the economic development of Germany

Along with the economic division of the world by the alliances of the capitalists of various countries, and in close connection with it, the territorial division of the world by the imperialist states takes place. The end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century are characterized by the completion of the territorial division of the world between several major powers.

In the period from 1876 to 1914, i.e., the period of the emergence, development and establishment of capitalist monopolies, the colonial possessions of the six great powers (England, Russia, France, Germany, the United States, Japan) increased by 25 million. sq. km, which was 1.5 times the area of the metropolises themselves. Three of the six powers named, namely: Germany, the USA and Japan, did not have any colonies in 1876, and the fourth, France, had almost none.

By 1914, these four powers had acquired colonies covering 14 million square kilometers. sq. km, i.e. approximately one and a half times more than the territory of Europe.

Of the 133.9 million sq. km of the entire land area in 1914, the share of the six great powers and their colonies accounted for 81.5 million square meters. sq. km, including the area of colonies amounted to 65 million sq. sq. km, i.e., almost half of the entire territory of the earth. Of the remaining 52.4 million sq. km the share of semi-colonies (China, Persia and Turkey) accounted for 14.5 million. sq. km, to the share of colonies of small states (Belgium, Holland, etc.) - 9.9 million. sq. km. Thus, by 1914, when the dominance of the monopolies in the main capitalist countries was fully established, the share of the colonies and semi-colonies was 89.4 million. sq. km, or two-thirds of the total land area.

The territorial division of the world between the great powers was completed. It was now possible to obtain new colonies or spheres of influence only by taking them away from another colonial power. The importance of the colonies for the imperialist states has risen sharply. “Ownership of a colony alone,” wrote V. I. Lenin, “gives a complete guarantee of the success of the monopoly against all the chances of fighting a rival...” 12 This is explained by the following circumstances.

Monopoly domination is strongest when all sources of raw materials are seized in one hand. For finance capital, not only the already discovered sources of raw materials are important, but also the possible sources. Lands that are unusable today may be usable tomorrow. Hence the inevitable striving of finance capital to expand the economic territory it controls and to territorial conquests in general. The interests of exporting capital also impel the conquest of colonies. In a colonial market, it is easier to eliminate a competitor. The desire for colonial conquests is strengthened by the fact that on the paths of colonial expansion, finance capital is looking for a way out of the sharpening class contradictions. Finally, the imperialist states are also interested in the colonies as military-strategic bridgeheads.

As a result, the era of struggle for the redistribution of the already divided world begins. The monopolies, dominating within the country, seek to subjugate and make all other countries the object of the most brutal exploitation.

Imperialism is characterized not only by the two main groups of countries - those owning colonies and the colonies - but also by dependent countries, formally politically independent, but in reality entangled in networks of financial and diplomatic dependence.

Without formally legally having any significant colony, the United States is currently -

in fact the largest colonial power. By investing capital, providing enslaving loans, concluding unequal treaties, the US monopolies brought the economy under their control and natural resources many countries of the American continent. Venezuelan oil, Chilean copper, Bolivian tin, Brazilian iron and coffee are the property of US monopolies. Countries Latin America used by the United States as a source of strategic materials, a foothold for military bases. The American monopolies own about two-thirds of the oil in the Near and Middle East, where about two-thirds of the proven oil reserves of the entire capitalist world are concentrated. American and to some extent British monopolies are raking in huge profits in this part of the world, leaving to the Arabs "the ear of a camel," as the Arab proverb says. The United States has enmeshed most of the countries of the capitalist world in financial, military and political dependence, threatening the national independence of not only the backward, but also the developed capitalist countries.

The uneven, spasmodic development of the main imperialist countries leads to the fact that the colonial possessions of one or another power cease to correspond to its economic and military power. The result is an intensification of the struggle for the redistribution of colonial possessions. By 1914, the colonial possessions of England amounted to 33.5 million. sq. km, they were 11.5 times the size of the German colonial holdings and 112 times the size of the US colonial holdings. Meanwhile, in terms of economic power, not only the United States, but also Germany had already managed to overtake England by that time. The share of the United States in world industrial output in 1913 was approximately 36%, the share of Germany - 16, and the share of England - 14%. In terms of production growth rates at the beginning of the 20th century, it significantly surpassed England and Japan. The area of the Japanese colonies was not even a hundredth of the colonial possessions of England. This discrepancy between the economic power and pace of development of individual countries, on the one hand, and the distribution of colonies and "spheres of influence", on the other, was one of the main causes of the First World War.

Lenin pointed out that by the beginning of the 20th century "capitalism had grown into a worldwide system of colonial oppression and financial suffocation by a handful of 'advanced' countries of the gigantic majority of the world's population" 13 . With the end of the division of the world, the colonial system of imperialism took shape, which is part of the world system of capitalism.

The colonial system constituted one of the most important pillars of imperialism. Monopoly high profits, raw materials,

cheap labor, cannon fodder - all this was supplied by the colonies.

The natural result of the oppression and financial strangulation of colonies and dependent countries by world imperialism is their economic backwardness. The oppression of monopolies precludes the possibility of a comprehensive economic development colonies and backward countries.

Long before Spanish American War 1898 Back in 1849, the United States offered Spain to sell Cuba to them for $100 million. The deal didn't go through, no one was selling the colonies. In 1895, the last uprising against Spanish colonial rule began in Cuba. The US found it convenient to use these events to launch an anti-Spanish campaign and seize Cuba. Using the explosion on the cruiser Maine, the United States in April 1898 launched a war against Spain. They won a quick victory, defeating the Spanish fleet. "Independent" Cuba became an American semi-colony. So the Spanish-American War marked a new milestone in history international relations: this war was the first, but not last war for changing the world. The victory over Spain opened the way for the United States to further expand into the south of Latin America and into the regions of the Far East and South-East Asia. But the colonial powers not only quarreled, but sometimes "peacefully" divided the booty. Germany profited from the Spanish-American War without firing a shot, buying the Marshall, Caroline, and Mari Islands in the Pacific from a weakened Spain. Another war, connected with the colonial redistribution of the world, was unleashed by England against two Boer republics in the south of the African continent. The Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902) was a big war: Great Britain sent a 250,000-strong army against the partisan detachments of the Boers (descendants of Dutch settlers). During the fighting, some “novelties” were used here, which later became an example for all the armies of the world: the British first used machine guns, introduced khaki camouflage clothing, and resorted to the construction of long-term trenches. The forces of the opponents were unequal. The Boers were defeated. Their republics joined the British colonies. A compromise between the British and the White Boers, who were the same colonialists in relation to the black natives, ended with the creation of the Union of South Africa, which in 1910 received the status of a self-governing dominion. Germany was rewarded for its neutrality in this conflict and received from England two islands in the Samoa archipelago. England, in turn, received from Germany a small disputed territory on the border of the Anglo-German possessions in Togo (Africa). Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905 was a war for the redistribution of territories and spheres of influence on Far East. In this war, England and the United States were on the side of Japan. With the hands of the Japanese, they hoped to weaken Russia. To this end, England concluded an Anglo-Japanese alliance in 1902, and the United States helped Japan in 1905 secure favorable terms for a peace treaty with Russia. As a result, Japan strengthened its positions in South Manchuria and created the prerequisites for the subsequent annexation of Korea in 1910 and further expansion in China and Southeast Asia. The US ended up acquiring an aggressive Rival. Germany and Austria-Hungary supported Russia, trying to tear it away from the Franco-Russian alliance. For the Japanese ruling circles, this became a pretext for undermining the German positions in China. Germany, having failed to achieve an alliance with Russia, acquired a rival in the person of Japan. Thus, the knots of two world wars were tied in the Far East. During the Anglo-Boer War, the German ruling circles adopted new plans for the implementation of the slogan of Wilhelm II "Our future is on the water!". In June 1900, at the height of the war, the Reichstag approved a new naval arms race program, which was considered the first condition for a successful fight against the "mistress" of the seas, Great Britain. By 1915, Germany expected to have 34 battleships, 45 cruisers and about 100 destroyers. The attempt on the English naval championship caused in England response plans for the construction of new warships. Anglo-German antagonism was clearly manifested in the Middle East. The German capitalists obtained from the government of Turkey an important decision - to guarantee the construction of a railway to the Middle East, from Berlin through Baghdad to Kuwait. "The future of Germany is in the East," said the German expansionists at the time. In 1903, the project was accepted by Turkey and construction began. England retaliated by taking over Kuwait. The aggravation of the Anglo-German rivalry led to changes in foreign policy England in Europe.

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As a result of the improvement of transport, it has become much easier to transport raw materials and finished products over long distances. This is what pushed the developed countries to new colonial conquests. As a result, a struggle for the redivision of the world unfolded. This course was especially persistently taken by the states that were late to the division of the colonies, but then turned into powerful industrial powers.

In 1898, the United States attacked Spain under the slogan of the liberation of its colonies. As a result, Cuba gained formal independence, which actually became the possession of the United States. Without any special formalities, they acted with the islands of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. The United States also ceded the Hawaiian Islands and the Panama Canal zone.

Germany in the 19th century captured the Southwestern South East Africa(Cameroon, Togo), bought from Spain the Caroline and Mariana Islands in the Pacific Ocean. Japan took over Taiwan, sought to establish itself in Korea. But both Germany and Japan considered themselves deprived colonies.

In addition to the Spanish-American War of 1898, the Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902) and Russo-Japanese War(1904-1905). During the Anglo-Boer War, the two Boer republics in South Africa(Transvaal and Orange) went to England. As a result of the victory over Russia in the Russo-Japanese War, Japan established itself in Korea and strengthened its position in China.

Problems of modernization.

Many countries faced the problem of modernization - economic, social, political and cultural transformations aimed at forming a society that met the requirements of the era. States served as a model Western Europe. However, in the XIX century. the only fairly successful experience of modernization took place in Japan after the Meiji reforms. These reforms paved the way for rapid industrial development, the spread of civil liberties, and education. At the same time, the Japanese did not abandon their traditions, did not destroy their usual way of life.

Germany in the 19th century seized Southwest and Southeast Africa (Cameroon, Togo), bought the Caroline and Mariana Islands in the Pacific Ocean from Spain. Japan took over Taiwan, sought to establish itself in Korea. But both Germany and Japan considered themselves deprived colonies.

In addition to the Spanish-American War of 1898, the Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) are considered the first wars for the redivision of the world. During the Anglo-Boer War, two Boer republics in South Africa (Transvaal and Orange) went to England. As a result of the victory over Russia in the Russo-Japanese War, Japan established itself in Korea and strengthened its position in China.

National liberation and body struggle in India.

Since 1899, the viceroy of India was Lord J. Curzon, who pursued a policy of pressure and racial discrimination and support for British entrepreneurs. His actions contributed to the strengthening of anti-colonial sentiment. However, there was no unity among the supporters of change. Opponents of the colonial regime in 1885 united in the Indian National Congress (INC). In its leadership were representatives of wealthy circles, who stood in the position of loyal opposition to the colonialists. But at the turn of the century, a radical trend appeared in Congress, advocating an active struggle against the British. The slogans of swadeshi (domestic production) and swaraj (own rule) were gaining more and more popularity.

From the beginning of 1906, the swadeshi movement began to take the form of mass demonstrations. There were railroad strikes. In the course of the strike struggle, trade unions were formed. In response, the British launched repressions against the radical leaders of the INC.

In 1914, Mahatma Gandhi became the leader of the INC. He created a socio-political program of "non-violent non-cooperation" with the authorities. The experience of the 1905 revolution in Russia and the doctrine of non-violence by L.N. Tolstoy contributed to the development of this program.

Plans for military-political blocs in Europe.

AT late XIX early twentieth century in Europe there were two opposing military-political alliances: the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and the Entente (France, Russia, Great Britain). They hatched grandiose plans to rebuild the world.

England aspired to become even more "Great Britain", designed to subjugate most of the world to its influence. Germany made plans to create " Greater Germany>, "Middle Europe", which would cover Austria-Hungary, the Balkans, Asia Minor, the Baltic states, Scandinavia, Belgium, Holland and part of France, she wanted to become a huge colonial empire with a sphere of influence in South America. France sought not only to return Alsace and Lorraine, but also to annex the Ruhr, to expand the colonial empire. Russia wanted to take possession of the Black Sea straits, expand its influence in the area Pacific Ocean. Austria-Hungary sought the defeat of Serbia in order to strengthen its hegemony in the Balkans. The United States and Japan built broad plans of conquest.

By 1914 the arms race in the world had reached enormous proportions.

Germany, without reducing the naval program, feverishly increased the land army. Together with her ally Austria-Hungary, she had at her disposal 8 million people trained in military affairs. In the Entente camp there were more military trained, but german army was technically better equipped. The Entente countries also rapidly increased their armed forces. However, the military programs of France and Russia were late. Their implementation was planned only for 1916-1917.

german plan war, providing for a quick (blitzkrieg) war on two fronts - Western and Eastern, was developed by Schlieffen. main idea was to attack France through Belgium. The objectives of the operation were the encirclement and defeat of the French armies. Against the Russian army, defensive actions were first envisaged with limited forces. After the defeat of the French, it was supposed to transfer troops to the east and defeat Russia.

The plans of the French command were mainly of a waiting character, since France was inferior to Germany both in military-industrial terms and in terms of the size of the army. England did not seek wide participation in ground war, hoping to shift its entire burden on Russia and France. Russian political and strategic interests demanded that the main efforts be directed against Austria-Hungary.

On August 1 (July 19), 1914, the world was plunged into the abyss of war by the imperialists. What had been prepared for so long by the imperialist governments in secret from the masses of the people has come to pass. The first world imperialist war began. 33 states were drawn into the war, over 70 million people were put under arms. The war was fought on land, at sea and from the air. Many new, hitherto unseen weapons were used in the war. The war was fought simultaneously on several continents - in Europe, Asia and Africa. Such a scope of the war was determined, first of all, by its imperialist character. In capitalist production, there was a sharp jump, which led to catastrophic consequences. The unevenness of capitalist development was its unconditional law. This unevenness aggravated between individual countries and inevitably gave rise to a frequent regrouping of forces between the imperialist states. In pursuit of monopoly high profits, they resort to wars. Due to the fact that at the end XIX- early XX century, the entire territory of the globe was divided between capitalist states, the young imperialist states could only satisfy their aspirations by redistributing the world. This redivision of the world under capitalist private property is "just" impossible. The question arose about its forcible redistribution. And strength changes with the course of economic development. After 1871, Germany strengthened 3-4 times faster than England and France, Japan 10 times faster than Russia.

The struggle for a new redistribution of the world - for the redistribution of foreign lands, colonies, for the seizure of markets for goods, raw materials and markets for the investment of capital - was the main cause of the imperialist war that broke out in 1914. This war has long been prepared, its organizers and perpetrators were the imperialists of all countries. For the imperialists, the war was also a means of strangling the revolutionary movement.

Russo-German contradictions were of great importance in the outbreak of the war. If the official German circles outwardly, starting from the 20th century, rarely resorted to threats against Russia and even repeatedly offered her an alliance, then in fact the German military, financiers and industrialists developed a broad program for dismembering Russia and completely reducing it to the rank of a second-rate power. In this regard, Germany had a strong ally in the person of Austria-Hungary.

However, German imperialism did not want to be content with only peaceful economic penetration into Russia. Availability in Russia a large number German banks, German factories, shops, the wide distribution of German goods on the Russian market did not satisfy the German imperialists. They dreamed of ousting the prosperous French and British capitalists from Russia. In this respect, German imperialism had a strong base in Russia.

The actions of the German capitalists and landowners caused great economic damage to Russia. The German landowners essentially achieved a ban on the import of Russian grain and livestock into Germany, and the German industrialists, under a trade agreement with Russia in 1904, received favorable conditions for themselves, which made it possible for them to widely sell their goods on the Russian market.

But if in regard to the old Russian possessions the German capitalists have so far limited themselves to only newspaper and magazine statements, then they have ceased to consider Russia's interests in Turkey and the Balkans, openly setting the goal of ousting Russia from these regions. Turkey became increasingly dependent on Germany. For German loans and promises of support for Turkish policy in Europe, Germany at the beginning of the 20th century obtained Turkey's consent to the construction of the Berlin-Baghdad railway.

By starting the construction of a railway through Turkish territory, German imperialism firmly seized many important levers of Turkish economic life and dealt a strong blow to its competitors, both Britain and Russia. Under conditions of broad economic expansion, Germany managed to penetrate through Turkey into Persia, and above all into the Russian “sphere of influence”. These successes of the German imperialists could not but cause a sharp aggravation of Russian-German relations. The infringement by Germany of Russian interests in Turkey and Persia, which had long been considered the sphere of the colonial policy of the Russian autocracy, increased the tension between the German and Russian capitalists.

Taking advantage of its economic successes in Turkey, Germany began to take over the Turkish army. In 1913, sensational news came to St. Petersburg: the German general Liman von Sanders was appointed commander of the Turkish army corps located in the Constantinople region, and several dozen more German officers received the most important command posts in the Turkish army.

Russia turned to England and France for help, but England found it inconvenient to raise the issue of removing the German general from Constantinople, since her own admiral, who commanded the Turkish fleet, was there, and she did not want to give up her positions for the sake of Russia. France, according to one of its diplomats, decided to take the opportunity to finally “break the bridge” between St. Petersburg and Berlin.

Austria-Hungary, being in a military alliance with Germany, had the same aggressive program against Russia as its powerful partner. The Austrian landlords and capitalists wanted to wrest a part of Poland from Russia, but they considered their main goal to be the complete pushing of Russia out of the Balkans, and, above all, the subordination of Serbia to themselves. Among the Austrian ruling classes, the idea of creating a triune Austro-Hungarian-Slavic monarchy enjoyed particular success. Austria had already begun to implement this idea in 1908-1909. She completely occupied and turned into an Austrian possession the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Now she was preparing to take over Serbia.

This policy of Austria-Hungary met with a decisive rebuff from tsarist Russia. In all capitalist countries a powerful working-class movement has unfolded.

On February 8, 1914, a meeting of a number of ministers took place. The meeting set the Russian government the task of speeding up the construction Black Sea Fleet, equip the landing corps and ensure its transfer by strengthening the transport fleet and building strategic railways. At the same time, the task was set to more actively promote the rapprochement of Serbia and Romania with Bulgaria against Austria-Hungary.

In accordance with this course, the subsidy to Montenegro was renewed (subject to its close alliance with Serbia), and negotiations began with the Serbian and Greek premiers to restore the Balkan Union. There was also a meeting between Nicholas II and the Romanian king, during which negotiations continued on bringing Romania to the side of Russia.

Finally, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs decided to start without delay negotiations on the conclusion of an agreement between Russia and England.

Allied relations between Russia and France on the eve of the war became even closer. In 1911-1913. meetings of chiefs were held general staffs Russia and France, on which decisions were made to increase the number of forces put up against Germany and to speed up the time for their concentration. Thus, here everything was clear to the limit.

So, there was a split in Europe into two camps. The Entente was created as part of England, France and Russia, which opposed the Triple Alliance represented by Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. Royal Russia played a subordinate role in the Entente, was a reserve of Western European imperialism.

A furious arms race unfolded. Germany was the leader in this race, but other powers, to the best of their ability, tried to keep up with her. All this was covered, of course, with the slogans of “preservation of peace,” but the more billions were thrown into service, the more soldiers were put under arms, the more inevitable the approach of the moment when, according to the ancient saying, guns themselves begin to shoot.

In Russia, the arms race intensified especially after the Bosnian crisis. In 1908, the “Great Program to Strengthen the Army” was adopted, according to which the number of troops and artillery increased significantly.

At the same time, programs were developed to restore the Baltic Fleet and to strengthen the Black Sea Fleet to complete superiority over the Turks. All programs were designed for three or four years, and their completion was expected by about 1917.

1913 and at the latest - by the spring of 1914, after which the critical moment will come when Germany is in the most favorable conditions to start a victorious war.

In Austria-Hungary, the arms race also developed rapidly. Diplomatic successes, military successes - only in this the ruling circles of Vienna saw the salvation of the collapsed empire.

Consciousness of one's military superiority in this moment, the realization that this superiority might soon come to naught, led the ruling circles of Berlin and Vienna to the decision that it was necessary to start a war against Russia and France at the first opportunity.