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Competition and cooperation in space exploration. International cooperation in space exploration. ISS is a living quarter in space

"International Cooperation in the Exploration of Outer Space"

Checked by teacher:

Irkutsk, 2005

INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………….....3

INTERNATIONAL SPACE ACTIVITIES………………….4

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION OF RUSSIA IN SPACE……….9

THE PROGRAM “SOYUZ - APOLLO” (AST)……………………………....13

ISS IS A LIVING QUARTER IN SPACE……………………………...…….19

CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………….30

REFERENCES…………………...…………………………………….31

INTRODUCTION

In my work, I want to consider the topic "International cooperation in the exploration of outer space" and learn its main aspects in more detail, because in last years- years of STP (scientific and technological progress) - one of the leading sectors of the national economy is space. Achievements in the exploration and exploitation of outer space are one of the most important indicators of the level of development of a country. Despite the fact that this industry is very young, the pace of its development is very high, and it has long been clear that the exploration and use of outer space is now unthinkable without broad and versatile cooperation between states.

In a very short historical period, astronautics has become an integral part of our life, a faithful assistant in economic affairs and knowledge of the world around us. And there is no doubt that the further development of terrestrial civilization cannot do without the development of the entire circumterrestrial space. Space exploration - this "province of all mankind" - continues at an increasing pace.

In a positive way, such trends in modern international relations as globalization, strengthening of integration processes and regionalism work for space. On the one hand, they pose tasks of a truly global order to space activities, since only space means make it possible to collect, process and disseminate information on the state of global problems on a planetary scale. On the other hand, they make it possible to combine efforts and find funds to solve national and regional problems, ensuring economic profitability.

For a more complete coverage of the issue on my topic, I tried to use the latest data (the end of the 90s of the XX century to the present day). In this work, many new things were emphasized from magazines about space, such as: "International Life" - where we are talking about the risks arising from international cooperation in space, that the development of the space industry is mainly due to commercial flights, and that even countries such as Russia or the United States, exploring space, often need the help of investors; " civil Aviation”, “Air Shows of the World”, “Earth and the Universe” - which highlights the latest and most detailed news from the ISS. I also used the encyclopedic data "Avanta +" and "What is it? Who is this? ”, where there are many articles about various and interesting international space programs.

INTERNATIONAL SPACE ACTIVITIES

From the very beginning of the space age, marked by the launch of the first artificial satellite Earth, and then the first manned flight into space, the two first world space powers, the USSR and the USA, focused their efforts on ambitious national projects aimed at achieving priority results in the military, scientific and technological fields, with little regard for financial costs.

At the turn of the 1990s, and in fact, starting from the years, the Joint Russian-American Commission on Economic and Technological Cooperation, which was created, became a catalyst for integration processes between national space programs.

Astronautics is becoming a naturally functioning branch of the national and world economy, subject to its basic laws and development trends. The most important factors influencing the development of astronautics are the commercialization of space activities and integration processes, they stimulate the economic activity of the space industry, thus turning into a significant non-budgetary incentive for the progress of astronautics. This aspect seems especially important in the period of a sharp reduction in budget allocations in Russia for space research. An analysis of the positive and negative experience of commercial space projects shows that success is primarily present where space technologies have been able to organically integrate as an addition to existing markets. Obviously, the driving force behind the space market in the coming years will be the development of the space segment of the global information infrastructure, which ensures the convergence of information flows for various purposes (communications, surveillance, digital television and radio broadcasting, telephony, computer-to-computer multimedia communication - the Internet, etc.) and their targeted distribution in orbit in conjunction with continuing development of the ground segment.

It seems that the further successful development of large-scale space programs, which requires the investment of colossal scientific, technical, economic, intellectual and other resources, is impossible without effective organization international cooperation, which, as the experience of the last decade shows, is the most progressive form of implementing space projects. First of all, this situation manifested itself in the implementation of scientific space projects, when complexes of unique equipment on spacecraft for scientific purposes began to be formed by scientists from various countries - world leaders in the development of various types of equipment.

Real examples of such cooperation include the well-known projects for the study of Venus, Halley's comet, Mars (Mars-Odyssey 2001), which is significantly behind the original schedule, but nevertheless the continuing program Spectrum - X-ray - Gamma and others.

The obvious benefits of pooling international resources in the framework of large-scale and technologically complex space exploration projects are accompanied by the emergence of problems that affect the development of global cooperation in this area.

First of all, this concerns the problems of developing principles and standards in the field of joint project management, economics, law, and technical standards. Certain difficulties are caused by linguistic and cultural differences.

Another block today is the problem of ensuring control over the proliferation of missile technologies, the use of which can pose a potential serious threat to the world community if such technologies are used for undeclared purposes or leaked to countries that have not joined international non-proliferation regimes.

Opportunities to overcome such administrative barriers at the interstate level in general or, in particular. For each individual international project, they are today a criterion for assessing the benefits and risks when partners decide to participate in international cooperation.

Despite the difficulties of the last decade, Russia still retains a fairly strong scientific and industrial potential and a high level of competitiveness in the field of key space technologies, continuing to conduct research and development in all major areas of space activities. This is confirmed by the involvement of Russian enterprises and organizations in many well-known space programs and projects.

Here we should mention such programs as the joint Russian-American Mir-Shuttle project, which is the first phase of technology development for the International Space Station (ISS) program. Beginning in 1993, Russia entered the international market for commercial launch services, which gave impetus to joint projects in satellite communications (Troika), design engines (RD-180); in the 1990s, the level of joint projects in the field of space sciences and geosciences also reached its peak.

According to Russian system analysts, as before, only two countries in the world - Russia and the United States - have scientific, technical and production potential with a full range of necessary technologies for the implementation of space projects in any area of space activity.

Scientific and technological achievements Russian cosmonautics for more than 50 years of its development are well known and probably do not require a detailed commentary. It is known that the economic contribution of the USSR, and then Russia, to the creation of the national space potential over 50 years, including the costs of developing science and technology, creating a production, technological and experimental base, operating, educating and training highly qualified personnel, are estimated by Russian economists in terms of labor intensity in the value of about 10 million man-years based on the average number of people employed in this industry of 200 thousand people.

Today, more than 50 countries of the world community officially have space budgets, and much more large quantity countries associated with the development of space activities. However, the known figures for the size of modern space budgets of most countries of the world (from hundreds of millions to a few billion dollars) show that it will take decades to repeat the path traveled by Russia and the United States, even without repeating mistakes.

At the same time, the benefits of international cooperation are obvious both for countries that are pioneers in astronautics. The same applies to states that are just starting to master space technologies:

As a result, experienced space leaders receive direct economic benefits by expanding their positions in the global space market by selling goods, technologies and services abroad.

For countries with a shorter space history investments in foreign projects are also considered as a form of exclusion of technical and commercial risks associated with the specifics of space activities.

Obviously, the development of international commercial cooperation creates the prospect of profitability of investments in the space industry by reducing the cost of projects due to the different costs in different countries of production factors (raw materials, capital, labor, knowledge and know-how) and different rates of return on investment.

In the course of the implementation of international projects, there are also risks, with protection from the spread of missile technologies that could affect the creation of delivery vehicles for weapons of mass destruction in countries that are not members of international non-proliferation regimes.

Comprehensive risk analysis includes such main risk categories as technical, economic and political risks.

Technical risks include failure of rocket and space technology, which are the most common causes failures of space projects.

Economic (commercial) risks include risks associated with the possibility of loss of financial resources, non-receipt of income, with additional costs for the implementation of the project.

Political risks include unexpected changes in the political situation in the country, leading to a violation of the conditions for the implementation of space projects.

To solve these problems, it is necessary to toughen the overall approach to the issues of control over the non-proliferation of missile technologies, adopt laws and by-laws, remove discriminatory barriers and facilitate free access to the global space market for those participants who have entered into an agreement on the missile technology control regime and are implementing his terms.

Currently, more than 120 states carry out space activities; about 20 of them are very active. Russia accounts for 10-12%, Europe -60%, followed by the USA, China, India.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION OF RUSSIA IN SPACE

The high scientific, technical and production potential that Russia has managed to maintain in the field of space construction and secondary space services, despite the difficult economic conditions of the past ten years, can play a decisive role in the competition with the United States and Europe, which pursues an independent space policy, uniting the space industry of countries, included in the EU.

The Russian Government attaches paramount importance to the expansion of international cooperation with its participation in the field of outer space. First of all, we are talking about the provision on a commercial basis of services for launching foreign payloads into outer space using Russian launch vehicles, generally recognized for their quality and reliability.

Proton launch complexes successfully compete for launches into geostationary orbit, which is currently the most in demand in terms of commerce, television and radio broadcasting and communications. Today, in low orbits, where Soyuz launch vehicles are used, a market is emerging in which Russia has a significant share.

Russia's potential in the space launch business could be greatly enhanced by the commercial use of its stock of military conversion rockets capable of launching small and medium payloads into low, polar and elliptical orbits.

Currently, work is underway in Russia to create by 2010 a fundamentally new launch vehicle of the Angara modular type.

Russia has a developed ground infrastructure for conducting space launches. The active constant modernization of the Baikonur Cosmodrome makes it one of the most modern cosmodrome in terms of work with clients. The Svobodny and Plesetsk military cosmodromes, as well as the Kapustin Yar space test site, are open for launching foreign payloads.

Russia carries out, in compliance with its international obligations, the export of missile technologies.

The portfolio of orders for the supply of domestic space technology and services to the world market annually exceeds $2 billion.

In the process of commercialization of space activities, national and transnational private and private-state companies become its active participants on an increasingly decisive scale. The global space market, given its diversity, scale and scientific and technical specifics, cannot but be an arena of competition. Its laws lead to the formation of space commercial alliances specialized in specific types of activity in certain areas of this market. Most often they take the form of joint ventures, which allows space projects in the optimal mode, making them as cheap as possible and attracting the best technologies, specialists, marketing experience, geographical and other opportunities.

Russia is an active participant in space commercial integration processes. To promote the launch services of the Russian Soyuz launch vehicles on the world market, the Starsem joint venture was created. From France, it includes two firms: Aerospatiale (the leading manufacturer of rockets in Europe) and Arianespas.

In the geostationary orbit market, the efforts of the American company Lockheed-Martin and the Russian State Space Research and Production Center. Khrunichev for the joint promotion of the Proton launch vehicle. Launches from Plesetsk by the Russian Rokot rocket are being promoted by the Russian-German joint venture Eurokot.

The broadest commercial prospects open up in the process of practical implementation of possible Russian-Australian projects related to the construction of a cosmodrome on Christmas Island and potentially using the Australian test site in Woomera to launch commercial payloads by Russian launch vehicles.

Astronaut" href="/text/category/astronavt/" rel="bookmark">by astronauts Thomas Stafford, Vance Brand and Donald Slayton.

And already on July 17, 1975 at 19:12 DMV, on the 36th orbit of the Soyuz spacecraft, it was docked with the Apollo spacecraft. This date is forever inscribed in the space history of earth civilization: for the first time in near-earth orbit, for almost two days, an orbital complex from spaceships two countries.

On the sixth day of the flight, the Soyuz spacecraft landed in the Kazakh steppe, and on the ninth day it “splashed down” in pacific ocean KK "Apollo".

Such an experience of connecting such a complex of spacecraft in space, the invaluable experience of joint control of the MCCs of the two countries, was unprecedented and it was possible to repeat it only 20 years later, when in June 1995 the Atlantis MTSK and the Mir orbital station docked.

The ASTP/ASTR program (Apollo Experimental Project - Soyuz / Apollo-Soyuz Test Project) in retrospect looked something like this.

The initiator of the “rapprochement and docking” of the USSR and the USA in the space field was NASA (US National Aeronautics and Space Agency).

The main reason was economic, since since 1965 the NASA budget has been constantly reduced: from $5.2 billion (1965) to $3.3 billion (1971).

Among the mass of projects (realistic and "not very"), the idea arose to make peace with the Soviets (especially since, according to the Americans, America took revenge for Sputnik and Gagarin in July 1969).

Since January 1970, an active correspondence began between NASA Director Dr. Thomas O. Payne and Academician President of the USSR Academy of Sciences Soviet space was officially under the “cap” of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, therefore all further negotiations and meetings were held under the patronage of the Academy of Sciences, although they were attended mainly by specialists from “space” enterprises and organizations).

Dr. Payne, in his letters to Academician Keldysh, proposed to carry out a joint space flight with the docking of American and Soviet spacecraft. This correspondence was a success.

26-27.10.70 The first meeting of Soviet and American specialists in the space field was held in Moscow, with the leaders being:

From the USSR - the chairman of the council "Interkosmos" academician;

From the USA - Director of the NASA Manned Space Flight Center

(later Johnson Space Center) Robert Gilruth.

At this meeting, in particular, it was decided to develop a new US-Soviet rendezvous and docking system. NASA employee Caldwell Johnson presented the first drafts of the concept of an androgynous docking mechanism.

As a result of the meeting, the “Final Document on the issue of ensuring the compatibility of rendezvous and docking systems for manned spacecraft and stations” was adopted.

According to available information, in the process of preparing and holding this meeting, the question of what would fit with what was also considered.

The Americans had practically no choice - only the spacecraft "Apollo". In turn, the USSR could choose, in particular: by this time, preparations for the launch of the Zarya station were being completed at Baikonur (this station later received the official name - Salyut).

21-25.07. A meeting of representatives and working groups of the USSR Academy of Sciences and NASA was held in Houston.

Note that the following three working groups have also been established:

1) for design technical solutions, ballistic support,

scientific experiments, interaction of MCCs (heads:

from the USSR - , deputy - ;

from the USA - P. Frank);

2) on ship control systems and tracking equipment

(heads: from the USSR -, from the USA - D. Cheetem, G. Smith);

3) on the docking station (leaders: from the USSR -,

from the USA - D. Wade, R. White).

AT October-November 1971 regular Soviet-American negotiations took place in Moscow.

The American proposals were based on the recommendations of a report (250 pages) by North American Rockwell under a NASA contract to study docking problems between an American spacecraft and the Soviet Salyut station. This report stated, in particular, that a docking experiment was possible as early as June 1974. However, for more flexible preparations, this flight was recommended to take place in June 1975.

The only new element that had to be developed was an airlock with a docking station to overcome the problems of the difference between the atmospheres of the Apollo spacecraft and the Salyut station. We also note that by the time the report was released, the company had made a model of such a chamber 2.7 m long and 1.4 m in diameter.

From the USSR, in order to conduct a joint experiment (flight), it was necessary to equip the Salyut station with a second (androgynous) docking port.

A corresponding flight program was proposed. The Americans also offered to conduct a second flight (in the summer of 1976). During this flight, the Apollo spacecraft was supposed to be docked with the Salyut station for two weeks.

It was decided to announce plans for the first (1975) and possible second (1976) joint flights during the visit of US President R. Nixon to the USSR (in May 1972).

29.11-06.12.71 Moscow hosted another meeting of Soviet (under the leadership) and American (under the chairmanship of the Director of the MSC Center Dr. R. Gilruth) specialists (in particular, on the creation of an androgynous peripheral docking unit - APAS). The American side has officially put forward a proposal for the docking of the Apollo spacecraft with the Salyut station.

The following options for APAS schemes were presented at the meeting:

Soviet - with three guide "petals";

American - with four guide "petals".

The Americans agreed to take the Soviet version of APAS as a basis.

An exchange of views was held on the work to ensure the compatibility of the radio systems of the docking vehicles.

Since December 1971, the issue of crews has been considered in the USA.

AT April 1972 Another meeting of specialists took place in Moscow:

The head of the Soviet delegation - I. about. President of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR

Academician V. Kotelnikov;

The head of the American delegation - deputy. NASA Director Dr. J. Lowe.

However, at this meeting, the Soviet side rejected the prepared plan for the docking of the Apollo spacecraft and the Salyut station. The Soviet side proposed to carry out in 1975 the docking of the Soyuz and Apollo spacecraft.

As a result of this meeting, the “Final Document on the Creation of Compatible Means for Rendezvous and Docking of Manned Spacecraft and Stations of the USSR and the USA” was signed. This document formed the basis of an interstate agreement on a joint flight signed on May 24, 1972 in Moscow by A. Kosygin and R. Nixon (in the presence of the General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee).

AT July 1972 A regular ASTP meeting was held in Houston, where two more joint Soviet-American working groups were created:

Fourth (on communication systems and range measurements), heads:

(from the USSR), R. Dietz (from the USA);

Fifth (for life support systems), managers:

, (from the USSR), R. Smile, U. Guy (from the USA).

09-19.10.72 A regular meeting on ASTP was held in Moscow.

The start date of the joint flight was approved - 07/15/75. (This was the first time for the Soviet cosmonautics when the launch date of the spacecraft was announced in advance, and even three years before it).

It was decided to reduce the atmospheric pressure in the Soyuz spacecraft after docking with the Apollo spacecraft from 1.0 to 0.7 atm. Such a solution made it possible to reduce the desaturation time during the transition from the Soyuz spacecraft to the Apollo spacecraft from 2 hours to 25 minutes. It was decided to leave the pressure in the spacecraft "Apollo" the same (0.35 atm.).

07-15.12.72 At the institute space research(IKI) of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (Moscow) held a regular meeting of the third ASTP group on the androgynous docking station. At this meeting, the first tests of the Soviet and American APAS models on a scale of 1:2.5 took place. The first "docking" was successful.

30.01.73 NASA has announced its ASTP/ASTR crews:

Main crew Cast: Thomas Stafford, Vance Brand, Donald Slayton.

Backup crew Cast: Alan Bean, Ronald Evans, Jack Lusma.

Support crew Cast: Carol Bobko, Robert Crippen, Robert Overmyer.

In March 1973, another meeting on ASTP was held.

The crew training schedule was also agreed upon:

First training session in July 1973 at the Johnson Center;

The second training - in October 1973 in Star City;

Then (once every 5-6 months) workouts lasting up to a month

should take place alternately in the American and Soviet Centers.

The communication scheme between the MCCs was approved, it was decided to exchange groups of managers during the flight. ( Note: although the crew training schedule was officially approved only in March 1973, the mutual exchange of experience began already in 1971.)

25.05.73 Soviet crews for the ASTP program were announced through the USSR Academy of Sciences, which looked like this:

first People: Alexey Leonov, Valery Kubasov;

second: Anatoly Filipchenko, Nikolai Rukavishnikov;

the third People: Vladimir Dzhanibekov, Boris Andreev;

fourth: Yuri Romanenko, Alexander Ivanchenkov.

15.07.2005. marks 30 years since the start of the joint Soviet-American project ASTP (Experimental Flight "Apollo" - "Soyuz"). This program is rightfully considered the most important in the international exploration of outer space, but moreover, it gave way to other important Mir programs and the ISS (which will be discussed later).

ISS IS A LIVING QUARTER IN SPACE

The most grandiose international project of our time is the construction by the joint efforts of many states of the huge ISS space station, in fact, a whole residential area in the boundless starry ocean, several hundred kilometers from planet Earth. And the first twenty-ton "brick" in the construction of an unusual extraterrestrial complex was laid by Russia and the United States. This happened in the late 90s of the last century. The Proton rocket lifted a cylindrical twelve-meter block into sky-high heights and put it into orbit. The block was manufactured by Russia, and the work was financed by the USA.

The official name of the first element of the station is FGB. What stands for: functional cargo block. On the ISS, it is like a "warehouse", a storage facility for fuel, equipment, and life support consumables. But not only "warehouse". Also a source of electricity supply initial stage station operation. In addition, the FGB has its own engines, with which it will be possible to maintain the orbit of the complex.

Russian specialists paid unprecedented attention to the reliability of the unit. To insure themselves one hundred percent, another exactly the same flight model was built at the Name Center. The failure of our last Martian expedition (the catastrophe during the launch of a rocket with the Mars-96 station) clearly showed what grave consequences the savings on the creation of backup vehicles lead to. But in this case, it was not only about our program. The fate of the entire international station, the huge costs of many states and, finally, the prestige and reputation of our country depended on the successful launch of the first space block. So both the over-thorough testing of the FGB and the creation of its "double" were by no means superfluous measures.

What is an unusual "residential quarter" in space? The image makes it possible to imagine the derived complex against the background of the slowly passing Earth. We see a bizarre, asymmetric pile of multi-ton cylindrical structures of different diameters and lengths, connected horizontally, vertically, at an acute angle and forming intricate branched "chains". All this is framed by huge solar panels, as well as bent in the form of "accordions" and multidirectional flat radiators, designed to dump heat from the station into outer space. The final touch: the residential quarter is cut up and down by two openwork metal trusses: one is 90-meter horizontal (relative to the imaginary axis of the Earth), the other is almost 30-meter vertical. Residential and working areas are located in the center of the complex. This is the "heart" of the station. And 22 mini-power plants (solar batteries) are moved to the periphery. The 90-meter metal truss is used not only to fasten panels that turn after the Sun at the ends, but also as a kind of “rail track” for the Canadian cart, on which the robotic arm is placed. With its help, the assembly of parts and assemblies of the station in open space, maintenance and repair work outside the sealed compartments was and is being carried out. The movement of the trolley and the actions of the manipulator are controlled by the operator from the console in the American segment.

For the assembly and maintenance of the Russian segment of the ISS, another manipulator was provided, which was developed in cooperation with the ESA countries.

To imagine the scale of the "residential quarter", you have to strain your imagination. The total mass of the ISS at full deployment is neither more nor less - about 400 tons. The volume of sealed compartments is 1100 cubic meters. This is about ten two-room Moscow apartments, or, as it were, an entire entrance hall of a five-story building.

FGB "Zarya"

"Proton-K"

Launch of the Zarya module

"Endeavour"

Delivery of "Unity" module with RMA-1/2 hermetic adapters

"Discovery"

Retrofitting and loads

"Atlantis"

SM "Star"

"Proton-K"

Launching the Zvezda service module

"Atlantis"

Repair and maintenance work and cargo

"Discovery"

Delivery of section Z-1 and hermetic adapter RMA-3

"SoyuzTM-ZG"

Delivery of the ISS-1 crew

"Endeavour"

Delivery of P6 section with solar panels

"Atlantis"

Delivery of laboratory module "Destiny"

"Discovery"

Delivery of the ISS-2 crew and return of the ISS-1, retrofitting of the Destiny module

"Endeavour"

Delivery of the "Kanadarm-2" manipulator and cargo

"Soyuz TM-32"

EP-1 crew flight

"Atlantis"

Delivery of lock chamber "Quest" and cargo

"Discovery"

Delivery of the ISS-3 crew and return of the ISS-2, retrofitting of the Destiny module

Launch of the Pirs docking module

"Soyuz TM-33"

EP-2 crew flight

"Endeavour"

Delivery of the ISS-4 crew and return of ISS-3, delivery and return of cargo

"Atlantis"

Delivery of S0 section and mobile conveyor

"Soyuz TM-34"

EP-3 crew flight

"Endeavour"

Delivery of the ISS-5 crew and mobile service system, return of the ISS-4 crew

"Atlantis"

Delivery of section S1 and cargo

"SoyuzTMA-1"

EP-4 crew flight

"Endeavour"

Delivery of the ISS-6 crew and P1 section and cargo, return of the ISS-5 crew

INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION CREW

table 2

	CREW
Expedition	Flight dates	Crew Composition	Duration, days, h, min, s
	31.10.2000-21.03.2001	W. Shepherd (USA), and S. K. Krikalev (RF)
		(RF), D. Voss and S. Helms (USA)
		, (RF) and D. Tito (USA)
	10.08-17.12.2001	F. Culbertson Jr. (USA), and (RF)
		, (RF) and K. Haignere (France)
	6.12.2001-19.06.2002	(RF), K. Walz and D. Bursh (USA)
		(RF), R. Vittori (Italy) and M. Shuttleworth (South Africa)
		SE. Treschev (RF) and P. Whitson (USA)
	30.10-10.11.2002	ST. Zaletin (RF), F. de Winn (ESA, Belgium) and (RF)
	24.11.2002-4.05.2003	K. Bowersox, D. Pettit (USA) and (RF)
		(RF) and E. Lu (USA)

In the American segment of the station, the largest hermetic modules were the Heb (basic residential area) and the Lab (for scientific research and experiments). ESA specialists named their module "Columbus". Of the three Japanese blocks, two are airtight. There are only eight sealed modules and units in the Russian segment.

Of course, the division into "segments" is largely arbitrary. International crews consisting of astronauts different countries live like a single family. Otherwise, it is impossible to hold out in space for six months. Moreover, you have to spend a lot of time in residential (sleeping) areas, and they are international station only two - on the American and Russian base modules.

It remains to say that the life of the international space station is defined as 15 years. That is, at least until 2012. The total costs exceeded $100 billion. The ISS receives unique medicines, semiconductor materials for electronics, computers, conducts Earth observations, environmental studies, exploration of minerals, as well as the study of the depths of the Universe, mysterious radiation coming from there ...

For the first time in the practice of short expeditions, eleven experiments were carried out in parallel under three scientific programs: Russian (two experiments), Italian (four experiments), and South Africa (five experiments). Contract scientific programs were prepared in an unprecedentedly short time - four months, and not two years, as before.

By Russian program two experiments were carried out: "Plasma Crystal" (study of plasma-dust crystals and liquids in microgravity conditions) and "Biotest-1" (study of sympathetic-adrenal activity in humans during space flight). Four experiments were carried out under the Italian program "Marco Polo": CHIRO - a study of the health of astronauts in the aspect of a possible decrease in working capacity; VEST - quality control of the new integrated clothing system for the crew; ALTEINO - study of the influence of cosmic radiation on the functional state of the central nervous system and operator performance; BMI is a study of the autonomic regulation of blood pressure and heart rate.

Five experiments were carried out under the South African program: CCE - study of the influence of microgravity conditions on the human cardiovascular system and characteristics of skeletal muscles; SPC - study of the process of crystallization of soluble protein; ESCD - study of the development of embryonic and stem cells in microgravity; Education - an educational program for schoolchildren to demonstrate the effects of weightlessness; "Plankton-Lens" - a study of the influence of various factors on the biological productivity of the oceans in the areas of the shelf coast of Africa and its natural resources according to visual-instrumental observations from space.

Undoubtedly, the brightest page in space exploration is associated with the flight of the world's first space tourist.

April 28, 2001 At 11.37 Moscow time, a truly historic launch of the Soyuz TM-32 spacecraft took place from the Baikonur cosmodrome: for the first time, a “tourist” went into space. They became the American millionaire Dennis Tito. Along with Russian cosmonauts - Commander Talgat Musabaev and Flight Engineer Yuri Baturin, he joined the ISS visiting crew.

However, the path to the stars for the "space traveler" turned out to be rather thorny. It is known how objected to the start of Dennis Tito overseas. Moreover, NASA's position was so categorical that our cosmonauts, who arrived at the American Astronaut Training Center in Houston, in solidarity with their "colleague" even decided on a one-day training boycott. The history of astronautics has not yet known anything like this.

Russia managed to defend the right to fly its “tourist”. There were two main arguments. First of all, as the head emphasized more than once, commercialization of the ISS will be required in the future to attract additional funds for this expensive program, and space tourism is one of the most acceptable options. Secondly, a contract was signed with Tito, the cost of which is estimated at a tidy sum - 20 million dollars. Someone has already calculated that a second of his week-long trip to the stars is worth thirty dollars.

Tito was assigned the role of "cook" aboard the ISS. And it happened quite by accident. It's just that the two commanders Musabaev and Usachov had to confer briefly about something. Sat down for coffee. They look: everyone is busy, but Tito is like a restless one. He took pictures, but the station went into shadow. He had duties on the ship, but not on the station. So Musabayev suggested: "Let's instruct him to take care of the buffet." Preparing for dinner in space is a troublesome business: until you find what you need ... So Dennis happily began to sort the products: meat - here, fish - there, fruit - here, etc. He helped a lot, freeing the crew from this .

May 6, 2001 The crew returned to Earth. She met with bright sun and strong wind. Rescuers fussed around Dennis Tito. And he smiled broadly: "I've been to paradise." True, the “paradise”, which lasted 7 days 22 hours 4 minutes 3 seconds for the American millionaire traveler, made itself felt: Dennis tried to get out of the descent module on his own, but it didn’t work out very well, unlike the experienced Talgat Mussabayev and Yuri Baturin, his taken out by hand. But you should have seen the enthusiasm with which Dennis began to nibble on one of the ruddy apples that are traditionally served on Kazakh land all those who arrived from orbit ...

What does the ISS look like today, which people have already called “space communal”? Here is what Hero of Russia Yuri Baturin said: “It seems to me that a person is comfortable where he can be left alone and be himself. And if you live in an aquarium, then no matter what curtains you attach there, it won’t be cozy. ” According to the cosmonauts, the station resembles a pipe a hundred meters long: the modules go one after the other. Everything is visible, and it is very inconvenient. Difficulties arise even in the male team. And what can we say when there is a woman? Such an example. Crews adapted to take water procedures in the functional cargo block. This is just between the American module and ours. But there you have to undress. They came up with a way out: the guys cover the manhole covers. It means "busy". However, you will not get from one module to another in these minutes. The station, of course, is still under construction. It is possible that it will get better later.

Those who managed to work on the Russian orbital station "Mir" believe that it was more comfortable: there the modules diverged into different sides. The base block where the astronauts lived was good. And if you need to take a break from everyone - sail away somewhere. The Americans in their segment have no toilets at all, no means of life support.

On February 4, 2002, NASA published the rules for visiting the ISS by astronauts and space tourists. They define the principles and criteria for the selection of any visitors to the ISS. Despite the fact that space tourists pay millions of dollars
does not mean that anyone will be allowed into the station. Offenders, liars, scammers, drinkers, drug addicts and other unworthy personalities will not have a road here. In addition, potential visitors to the station must be able to read and speak English, pass medical tests, including psychological ones, as well as appropriate training at training centers in Star City.
and in Houston.

"The future of spaceflight depends on the ability of individuals to pay to go into space." Serious financial problems have already arisen around the construction of the ISS. Moreover, not only Russia is experiencing difficulties, but also America, which is reducing its participation in the project. It is no coincidence that not so long ago the issue of allocating up to 30 percent of resources to "space tourism" was discussed overseas.

CONCLUSION

In connection with the wide-ranging changes that have taken place over the past decades in international relations: the termination cold war, reducing the level of military rivalry, the general stabilization of the world political situation opened up outer space for intensive peaceful development. As a result, international diverse cooperation in the field of exploration and use of outer space, the commercialization of entire areas of space activities, which until recently belonged to the exclusive prerogative of states in the field of national security, have intensified.

Conversion of space equipment and technologies, their demilitarization and use for peaceful purposes have become integral features of space cooperation. In industrialized countries, there is a strong outflow of space technologies into the economy (by-products of space activities). Space technology is an inexhaustible source of know-how used to develop and manufacture new products and services.

In a positive way, international cooperation in the exploration of outer space is working such trends of modern international relations as their globalization, strengthening of integration processes and regionalism. On the one hand, they pose tasks of a truly global order to space activities, since only space means make it possible to collect, process and disseminate information on the state of global problems on a planetary scale. On the other hand, they make it possible to combine efforts and find funds to solve national and regional problems, ensuring economic profitability.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Journal "International Life" №5 2002 "Risks of international space activities" Moscow Krasnov A.

2. Journal "International Life" №2 2003 "In commercial space" Moscow Krutskikh A.

3. The newspaper "Trud" "Alpha" - a residential quarter in space" dated 01.01.01. Moscow Golovachaev V.

4. Encyclopedia for children "Avanta +" Technique 2001 Maksimovsky V., Trankovsky S.

5. "What? Who it?" Volume 2 1993 Space

6. Magazine "Civil Aviation" No. 5 2003 "From April to April" Moscow Yachmennikova N.

7. Magazine "Air Shows of the World" No. 1, 2002 "Andromeda without Nebula" Gromov S.

8. Magazine "Air Shows of the World" No. 3 2002 "ISS: the fourth expedition" Gromov S.

9. Journal "Earth and the Universe" No. 5, 2003 "The ISS after the first five years of its work" based on materials from NASA and the journal "Cosmonautics News" for 2002-2003.

The high cost of space projects, on the one hand, and the interest of all countries of the world in the practical results of space exploration, on the other, have necessitated close cooperation between states in the field of astronautics. According to the Outer Space Treaty, in the exploration and use of outer space, its participants must be guided by the principle of cooperation and mutual assistance and carry out space activities with due regard for the relevant interests of all other states. States are encouraged to promote and encourage cooperation in this area.

Cooperation in the exploration and use of outer space is carried out in two main forms: within the framework of international organizations involved in space activities, and through joint international space projects and programs. Such cooperation is regulated by multilateral and bilateral international treaties.

Among the international organizations whose goals and objectives are directly related to space activities, we can mention the European Space Agency (ESA), the International Maritime Organization satellite communications, the European Organization for the Use of Meteorological Satellites, the Arab Satellite Communications Corporation, etc. Certain issues of space cooperation are in the field of activity of specialized UN agencies, including the International Telecommunication Union, the World Meteorological Organization, the International Civil Aviation Organization, the International Maritime Organization.

Joint international space projects and cooperation programs in the exploration and use of outer space cover a wide variety of areas of space activities. This is the creation of samples of space technology, joint manned flights, scientific research, use of the results of space activities, etc.

The most striking example of such cooperation is the program for the creation and use of the international space station, carried out in accordance with the 1998 Agreement between the governments of Russia, the United States, the ESA member states, Canada and Japan. Also noteworthy is the International COSPAS-SARSAT Program, designed to assist in the search and rescue of people by providing satellite-derived distress data (and its location) of ships or aircraft. Canada, Russia, the USA and France are members of the program, and any state can be a user.

Extensive international cooperation on space issues is carried out on the basis of bilateral agreements. Russia has such agreements with many states, in particular, on the launch of space objects by Russian launch vehicles, as well as on the use of the Baikonur cosmodrome (with Kazakhstan).

The high scientific, technical and production potential that Russia has managed to maintain in the field of space construction and secondary space services, despite the difficult economic conditions of the past ten years, can play a decisive role in the competition with the United States and Europe, pursuing an independent space policy, uniting the space industry of countries, included in the EU.

Russia carries out, in compliance with its international obligations, the export of missile technologies.

The portfolio of orders for the supply of domestic space technology and services to the world market annually exceeds $2 billion.

In the process of commercialization of space activities, national and transnational private and private-state companies become its active participants on an increasingly decisive scale. The global space market, given its diversity, scale and scientific and technical specifics, cannot but be an arena of competition. Its laws lead to the formation of space commercial alliances specialized in specific types of activity in certain areas of this market. Most often, they take the form of joint ventures, which makes it possible to carry out space projects in the optimal mode, making them as cheap as possible and attracting the best technologies, specialists, marketing experience, geographical and other opportunities.

Russia is an active participant in space commercial integration processes. To promote the launch services of the Russian Soyuz launch vehicles on the world market, the Starsem joint venture was created. From France, it includes two firms: Aerospatial (the leading manufacturer of rockets in Europe) and Arianespas.

In the geostationary orbit market, the efforts of the American company Lockheed-Martin and the Russian State Space Research and Production Center. Khrunichev for the joint promotion of the Proton launch vehicle. Launches from Plesetsk by the Russian Rokot missile are being promoted by the Russian-German joint venture Evrokot.

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Ministry of Education and Science of Russia

federal state budgetary educational institution higher professional education

"Volgograd State Technical University"

Faculty of Economics and Management

Department" World economy and economic theory"

Semester work

in the discipline "World Economy and International Economic Relations"

on the topic:" Prospects for international cooperation in space exploration"

Completed by: student group EBU_260

Pivovarov K.A.

Checked by: Professor, Doctor of Economics, Associate Professor

Matkovskaya Yana Sergeevna

Volgograd 2014

Introduction
1. International economic cooperation: basic concepts
2. International space activities
3. International cooperation of Russia in space
Conclusion
Bibliography

Introduction

In this work, I want to consider the topic "International cooperation in the exploration of outer space" and learn its main aspects in more detail, because in recent years - the years of scientific and technological progress - one of the leading sectors of the national economy is space. Achievements in the exploration and exploitation of outer space are one of the most important indicators of the level of development of a country. Despite the fact that this industry is very young, the pace of its development is very high, and it has long been clear that the exploration and use of outer space is now unthinkable without broad and versatile cooperation between states.

In a very short historical period, astronautics has become an integral part of our life, a faithful assistant in economic affairs and knowledge of the world around us. And there is no doubt that the further development of terrestrial civilization cannot do without the development of the entire circumterrestrial space.

In a positive way, such tendencies of modern international relations as globalization, strengthening of integration processes and regionalism work for space. On the one hand, they pose tasks of a truly global order to space activities, since only space means make it possible to collect, process and disseminate information on the state of global problems on a planetary scale. On the other hand, they make it possible to combine efforts and find funds to solve national and regional problems, ensuring economic profitability.

1. International economic cooperation: basic concepts

The international economy in the form it exists now did not take shape immediately. For many centuries wars were waged for the division of territories with sufficient resources, then in the era of humanism there was a desire to cooperate with other countries in order to fill the lack of resources through trade and the exchange of various technologies. However, the processes of interaction between national economies manifested themselves most rapidly in the twentieth century.

The strengthening of the role of the external component in the economic policy of the state is also manifested in the fact that individual countries are united in customs unions. A customs union is an organization that establishes a free trade regime between its member states. In addition, members of the customs union establish uniform taxes on imports from third countries that are not members of the union.

The appearance in a number of regions of the world of customs unions and free trade zones, the great international prestige and the scope of the activities of international economic organizations - all this has a solid foundation, an objective material basis in the form of deep processes of internationalization of all phenomena and aspects of economic life - trade, functioning and loan capital, industrial cooperation systems, labor markets, the development of science, transport communications.

In some regions, the economic rapprochement of neighboring countries has acquired such a scope that the quantity of these relations began to turn into quality. We are talking about the gradual formation of interstate complexes of the integration type, regional "hyperstructures". Vast international zones of intense economic impact are emerging with unified regime management, increasingly turning into specific structural units of the world economy. In the international life of the 20th century and in international relations, the activity of the United Nations - the United Nations, whose members enjoy equal rights and equal opportunities, regardless of their size and military-industrial potentials, has played a significant role over the past fifty years. Regardless of whether the dwarf European Principality of Monaco or the two leading world powers, the United States of America and the Russian Federation, each state has a single vote on the issue under consideration.

2. International space activities

From the very beginning of the space age, which was marked by the launch of the first artificial Earth satellite, and then the first manned space flight, the two first world space powers, the USSR and the USA, concentrated their efforts on ambitious national projects aimed at achieving priority results in military, scientific and technological areas, with little consideration for financial costs.

At the turn of the 1990s, the established Joint Russian-American Commission on Economic and Technological Cooperation became a catalyst for integration processes between national space programs.

Astronautics is becoming a naturally functioning branch of the national and world economy, subject to its basic laws and development trends. The most important factors influencing the development of astronautics are the commercialization of space activities and integration processes, they stimulate the economic activity of the space industry, thus turning into a significant non-budgetary incentive for the progress of astronautics. This aspect seems to be especially important in the period of a sharp reduction in budget allocations in Russia for space research. An analysis of the positive and negative experience of commercial space projects shows that success is primarily present where space technologies have been able to organically integrate as an addition to existing markets. Obviously, the driving force behind the space market in the coming years will be the development of the space segment of the global information infrastructure, which ensures the convergence of information flows for various purposes (communications, surveillance, digital television and radio broadcasting, telephony, computer-to-computer multimedia communication - the Internet, etc.) and their targeted distribution in orbit in conjunction with continuing development of the ground segment.

It seems that the further successful development of large-scale space programs, which requires the investment of colossal scientific, technical, economic, intellectual and other resources, is impossible without the effective organization of international cooperation, which, as the experience of the last decade shows, is the most progressive form of implementing space projects. First of all, this situation manifested itself in the implementation of scientific space projects, when complexes of unique equipment on spacecraft for scientific purposes began to be formed by scientists from various countries - world leaders in the development of various types of equipment.

The well-known projects for the study of Venus, Halley's comet, Mars ("Mars-Odyssey" 2001), which are significantly behind the original schedule, but nevertheless the continuing program "Spectrum - X-ray - Gamma" and others can be called real examples of such cooperation.

The obvious benefits of pooling international resources in the framework of large-scale and technologically complex space exploration projects are accompanied by the emergence of problems that affect the development of global cooperation in this area.

First of all, this concerns the problems of developing principles and standards in the field of joint project management, economics, law, and technical standards. Certain difficulties are caused by linguistic and cultural differences.

Another block today is the problem of ensuring control over the proliferation of missile technologies, the use of which can pose a potential serious threat to the world community if such technologies are used for undeclared purposes or leaked to countries that have not joined international non-proliferation regimes.

Opportunities to overcome such administrative barriers at the interstate level in general or, in particular. For each individual international project, they are today a criterion for assessing the benefits and risks when partners decide to participate in international cooperation.

Mention should be made here of such programs as the joint Russian-American Mir-Shuttle project, which is the first phase of technology development for the International Space Station (ISS) program. Beginning in 1993, Russia entered the international market for commercial launch services, which gave impetus to joint projects in satellite communications (Troika), design engines (RD-180); in the 1990s, the level of joint projects in the field of space sciences and geosciences also reached its peak.

According to Russian system analysts, as before, only two countries in the world - Russia and the United States - have scientific, technical and production potential with a full range of necessary technologies for the implementation of space projects in any area of space activity. cooperation space rocket globalization

The scientific and technological achievements of the Russian cosmonautics over the more than 50-year history of its development are well known and probably do not require detailed commentary. It is known that the economic contribution of the USSR, and then Russia, to the creation of the national space potential over 50 years, including the costs of developing science and technology, creating a production, technological and experimental base, operating, educating and training highly qualified personnel, are estimated by Russian economists in terms of labor intensity in the value of about 10 million man-years based on the average number of people employed in this industry of 200 thousand people.

Today, more than 50 countries of the world community officially have space budgets, and a much larger number of countries are associated with the development of space activities. However, the known figures for the size of modern space budgets of most countries of the world (from hundreds of millions to a few billion dollars) show that it will take decades to repeat the path traveled by Russia and the United States, even without repeating mistakes.

At the same time, the benefits of international cooperation are also obvious for states that are just starting to master space technologies:

- As a result, experienced space leaders receive direct economic benefits through the expansion of their positions in the global space market by selling goods, technologies and services abroad.

- for countries with a shorter space history, investments in foreign projects are also considered as a form of exclusion of technical and commercial risks associated with the specifics of space activities.

It is obvious that the development of international commercial cooperation creates the prospect of profitability of investments in the space industry by reducing the costs of projects due to the different costs in different countries of production factors (raw materials, capital, labor, knowledge) and different rates of return on investment.

In the course of the implementation of international projects, there are also risks, with protection from the spread of missile technologies that could affect the creation of delivery vehicles for weapons of mass destruction in countries that are not members of international non-proliferation regimes.

Comprehensive risk analysis includes such main risk categories as technical, economic and political risks.

Technical risks include the failure of rocket and space technology, which are the most common reasons for the failure of space projects.

Economic (commercial) risks include risks associated with the possibility of loss of financial resources, non-receipt of income, with additional costs for the implementation of the project.

Political risks include unexpected changes in the political situation in the country, leading to a violation of the conditions for the implementation of space projects.

Currently, more than 120 states carry out space activities; about 20 of them are very active. Russia accounts for 10-12%, Europe -60%, followed by the USA, China, India.

3. International cooperation of Russia in space

The high scientific, technical and production potential that Russia has managed to maintain in the field of space construction and secondary space services, despite the difficult economic conditions of the past ten years, can play a decisive role in the competition with the United States and Europe, pursuing an independent space policy, uniting the space industry of countries, included in the EU.

Proton launch complexes successfully compete for launches into geostationary orbit, which is currently the most in demand in terms of commerce, television and radio broadcasting and communications. Today, in low orbits, where Soyuz launch vehicles are used, a market is emerging in which Russia has a significant share.

Russia's potential in the space launch business could be greatly enhanced by the commercial use of its stock of military conversion rockets capable of launching small and medium payloads into low, polar and elliptical orbits.

Russia carries out, in compliance with its international obligations, the export of missile technologies.

The portfolio of orders for the supply of domestic space technology and services to the world market annually exceeds $2 billion.

In the process of commercialization of space activities, national and transnational private and private-state companies become its active participants on an increasingly decisive scale. The global space market, given its diversity, scale and scientific and technical specifics, cannot but be an arena of competition. Its laws lead to the formation of space commercial alliances specialized in specific types of activity in certain areas of this market. Most often, they take the form of joint ventures, which makes it possible to carry out space projects in the optimal mode, making them as cheap as possible and attracting the best technologies, specialists, marketing experience, geographical and other opportunities.

Russia is an active participant in space commercial integration processes. To promote the launch services of the Russian Soyuz launch vehicles on the world market, the Starsem joint venture was created. From France, it includes two firms: Aerospatial (the leading manufacturer of rockets in Europe) and Arianespas.

In the geostationary orbit market, the efforts of the American company Lockheed-Martin and the Russian State Space Research and Production Center. Khrunichev for the joint promotion of the Proton launch vehicle. Launches from Plesetsk by the Russian Rokot missile are being promoted by the Russian-German joint venture Evrokot.

The broadest commercial prospects open up in the process of practical implementation of possible Russian-Australian projects related to the construction of a cosmodrome on Christmas Island and potentially using the Australian test site in Woomera to launch commercial payloads by Russian launch vehicles.

Conclusion

In connection with the large-scale changes that have taken place over the past decades in international relations: the end of the Cold War, the decrease in the level of military rivalry, the general stabilization of the world political situation, opened space for intensive peaceful development. As a result, international diverse cooperation in the field of exploration and use of outer space, the commercialization of entire areas of space activities, which until recently belonged to the exclusive prerogative of states in the field of national security, have intensified.

Bibliography

1. Journal "International Life" №5 2009 "Risks of international space activities" Moscow Krasnov A.

2. Journal "International Life" No. 2, 2006. "In commercial space" Moscow Krutskikh A.

3. The newspaper "Trud" "Alpha" - a residential quarter in space "from February 15, 2006. Moscow Golovachaev V.

4. Lomakin V.K. World economy. - M.: Unity-Dana, 2007.

5. Magazine "Air shows of the world" No. 3 2010 "ISS: the fourth expedition" Gromov S.

6. Magazine "Civil Aviation" No. 5, 2007. "From April to April" Moscow Yachmennikova N.

7. Magazine "World Air Shows" No. 1, 2010 "Andromeda without Nebula" Gromov S.

8. "What is it? Who is it?" Volume 2 2009 Space

9. Journal "Earth and Universe" №5 2008 "ISS after the first five years of its work" based on materials from NASA and the journal "Cosmonautics News"

10. "Roscosmos will protect from asteroids" Laura Magomedova "Business Petersburg" 1606-, August 31, 2007

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The study of the geomagnetic field and the ionosphere at magnetically conjugated points of the Earth, the characteristics of the ionosphere and the processes developing in it at various altitudes, in the polar regions, etc., can also serve as examples of tasks requiring complex studies in various regions of our planet. All these tasks are not only scientific interest but are also of great practical importance.

International cooperation is beginning to play an increasingly important role in the development of such problems. More and more countries are becoming space powers. Development modern science is inseparable from progress in space exploration, knowledge is not yet revealed secrets nature and structure of matter is unthinkable without the use of methods and means of space research. Space technology comes to the rescue in the development of communications, television, and the study of terrestrial resources. Scientists from many countries are conducting theoretical and experimental work, in one way or another related to space research.

Along with economically developed states, some developing countries are already developing a space research program and are beginning to implement it. Combining the efforts of scientists from different countries, different scientific schools and directions for solving numerous problems of space exploration is very fruitful. The most difficult problems of setting up and implementing space experiments, the search for new effective solutions, the creation technical means and scientific instruments for studying outer space, processes occurring on the Sun, and earth's surface from space require a broad recruitment of talent, and there is talent in every country.

Participation in space research benefits every country, large or small, with solid experience or just starting out in this field. It leads to an increase in the level of development of science and technology, an increase in the qualifications of personnel, and has an impact on the development of related areas of science and technology. Great importance acquires cooperation in the development of problems that have a direct national economic focus - problems of space communications, meteorology, the study of earth resources, navigation, etc.

Striving to ensure that outer space is always an arena of peace and cooperation in the name of the interests of science and mankind, the Soviet Union maintains extensive international ties in the field of exploration and use of outer space.

Cooperation in these areas with the socialist countries is developing successfully. It began essentially immediately after the launch of the first artificial Earth satellite in 1957, when joint ground-based optical observations of the satellites and studies of the upper atmosphere based on their results were organized.

In 1967, a program of cooperation between socialist countries in the field of space physics, space meteorology, space communications, and space biology and medicine was adopted, which was called the Interkosmos program. Nine socialist countries are participating in its implementation - Bulgaria, Hungary, the German Democratic Republic, Cuba, Mongolia, Poland, Romania, the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia. In accordance with this program, on October 14, 1969, the Interkosmos-1 artificial Earth satellite was launched into orbit, and by mid-December 1975, 14 Interkosmos satellites, three vertical geophysical rockets, a significant number of meteorological rockets, a number of complex experiments using the facilities of ground-based observatories of cooperating countries.

In 1971, the international satellite communications organization Intersputnik was established. Member countries of this organization create on their territory stations for receiving and transmitting telephone and telegraph messages and television programs via Molniya communication satellites. Such stations have already been built in Mongolia, Cuba, the GDR, Poland and Czechoslovakia. It is planned to create stations in Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania.

On April 16, 1975, the first Indian scientific satellite of the Earth was launched with the help of a Soviet launch vehicle from the territory of Soviet Union. This satellite was designed and manufactured in a short time by Indian specialists with the advice and technical assistance of the Soviet side.
A large program of joint work in the field of space physics, space meteorology, space communications, and in recent years in the field of space biology and medicine is carried out in accordance with an agreement with France, which was concluded in 1966.

During this time, the Earth's satellites Oreol and Oreol-2 were put into orbit, on which Soviet and French instruments were installed to study processes in the polar ionosphere under the Arkad program, the French technological satellite MAC was launched, and comprehensive studies were carried out. magnetic field and processes in the ionosphere at magnetically conjugate points of the Earth under the Omega program.

In accordance with the Araks project, at the beginning of 1975, one of the largest Soviet-French experiments was successfully carried out, which marked the transition to active methods studies of the magnetosphere in magnetically conjugate points of the Earth. Two French rockets were launched on Kerguelen Island in the Indian Ocean, carrying Soviet electron accelerators, plasma generators and scientific equipment. With the help of accelerators, electrons were injected into outer space. The electron beams, having passed along the magnetic field line from the southern hemisphere, invaded the ionosphere over the northern conjugated region in the Arkhangelsk region. The process of electron intrusion into the ionosphere, which can be considered as an artificial aurora, was recorded using ground-based equipment and instruments installed on board the laboratory aircraft. French scientific equipment was installed on the Soviet Prognoz satellites, on automatic interplanetary stations of the Mars type, and with its help a number of joint experiments were carried out to study outer space and processes occurring on the Sun. French corner reflectors installed on Soviet lunar rovers made it possible to carry out experiments on laser ranging of the Moon, which are of considerable scientific interest.

Joint rocket meteorological studies of the atmosphere are regularly carried out at different altitudes. Soviet meteorological rockets with Soviet and French equipment on board are launched on Heiss Island (Franz Josef Land), and Soviet scientific instruments are lifted into space in France by French meteorological rockets.

An important stage in the development of international cooperation was the signing of an interstate agreement between the two leading space powers - the USSR and the USA on cooperation in the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes. This agreement, signed on May 24, 1972, during a meeting at highest level in Moscow, provides for the development of cooperation in the field of space meteorology, the study of the natural environment, the study of near-Earth space, the Moon and planets, space biology and medicine. One of the most important tasks stipulated by this agreement was to carry out work on the creation of compatible means of rendezvous and docking of Soviet and American manned spacecraft and stations in order to improve the safety of human space flights and ensure the possibility of carrying out joint scientific experiments in the future. The first experimental flight to test such means was scheduled for 1975. This provided for the docking of the Soviet spacecraft of the Soyuz type and the American spacecraft of the Apollo type with the mutual transfer of astronauts.

To implement this project, working groups of Soviet and American specialists were created and project directors were appointed - Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences K. D. Bushuev from the Soviet side and Dr. G. Lanny from the American side. Soviet and American specialists have done a great deal of work related to the creation of compatible means of rendezvous and docking of the Soyuz and Apollo spacecraft and the modernization of the ships necessary for this purpose. Fundamentally new docking units of the androgynous type have been developed, which can play the role of both an active and a passive node. A docking module has been created, which plays the role of an airlock for the transition of astronauts from one ship to another, which have different atmospheres both in composition and pressure. A difficult task was the development of methods and means of controlling two spacecraft from Mission Control Centers located on different continents. At the same time, it was necessary to provide the Control Centers with stable communication between themselves and with spacecraft. For this purpose, the use of a network of Soviet and American ground measuring points and communication satellites was envisaged. The necessary training of the personnel of the Control Centers was carried out.

The pilot-cosmonaut of the USSR twice Hero of the Soviet Union A. S. Eliseev from the Soviet side and P. Frank from the American side were appointed flight directors.

To prepare for the flight, the main and backup crews of the spacecraft were assigned by both sides. USSR pilot-cosmonaut Hero of the Soviet Union Alexei Leonov was appointed commander of the first crew of the Soyuz spacecraft, and Valery Kubasov, pilot-cosmonaut of the USSR Hero of the Soviet Union was appointed flight engineer. Astronaut Thomas Stafford was appointed commander of the first crew of the Apollo spacecraft, Vance Brand - pilot of the main unit and Donald Slayton - pilot of the docking module.

The main and backup crews of the spacecraft held joint training at the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City near Moscow and at the Johnson Manned Flight Center in Houston (USA), visited the Baikonur Cosmodrome and the Kennedy Cosmodrome in Florida.

The Soyuz and Apollo spacecraft and their systems have passed the necessary ground tests. The modernized Soyuz spacecraft also passed flight tests - two of them flew in automatic mode and one - the Soyuz-16 spacecraft in manned mode. The second Soviet crew appointed under the Soyuz-Apollo program, consisting of the USSR pilot-cosmonaut Hero of the Soviet Union Anatoly Filipchenko and the USSR pilot-cosmonaut Hero of the Soviet Union Nikolai Rukavishnikov, made a six-day flight on this ship and successfully tested it under a program as close as possible to the flight program of the Soyuz and Apollo spacecraft.

And so, strictly at the appointed time - at 15:20 Moscow time on July 15, 1975, the Soyuz-19 spacecraft was launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome, and seven and a half hours later, the ship set off on a space flight from Cape Canaveral to meet with it. "Apollo" and was launched into the same orbit. Then the process of rendezvous, mooring and docking of ships began. In the docked state, the space system, consisting of two ships, with five cosmonauts on board, made a two-day flight. During this time, Soviet and American cosmonauts visited each other and conducted a number of scientific experiments. During the joint flight, they filmed and photographed and television reports from the board of each of the ships. The first space press conference was a great success, during which the cosmonauts answered questions posed by journalists from the Soviet and American press centers. After undocking the ships, experiments were carried out to observe artificial solar eclipse from the board of the Soyuz spacecraft, when the Apollo covered the Sun with its body and played the role of an artificial Moon, as well as on the study of ultraviolet absorption.

After the experiment on observing an artificial solar eclipse, the ships were re-docked, during which the docking node of the Soyuz spacecraft functioned as an active one, and the unit of the Apollo spacecraft - as a passive docking unit.

Our outstanding artist-cosmonaut Alexei Leonov made sketches and sketches during the flight, observed an artificial solar eclipse and other phenomena with the experienced eye of an artist. Undoubtedly, his paintings will be a valuable addition to visual information about space experiments and observations.
Then the ships landed: "Soyuz" - on the territory of the Soviet Union, "Apollo" - in the Pacific Ocean.

Millions of people in many countries of the world watched with great attention on television the course of the joint flight, the exciting stages of this unique experiment: the launch and landing of ships; the first docking in space of ships created in different countries; historical handshake in orbit; the first space press conference with the participation of journalists gathered in press centers located on different continents; the process of undocking and maneuvering ships during experiments on observing an artificial solar eclipse and studying ultraviolet absorption.

Heroic cosmonauts Alexei Leonov, Valery Kubasov, Thomas Stafford, Vance Brand and Donald Slayton brilliantly coped with the task assigned to them and fully completed the flight program, conducted five joint scientific experiments and a number of autonomous experiments. The experiments carried out are among the most important, cardinal areas of space research. Their results will become the property of the world community.

The joint flight of the Soyuz-19 and Apollo showed how complex scientific and technical problems can be solved by combining the efforts of specialists from different countries.

It is also significant that two space systems, Soyuz-Apollo and Salyut-Soyuz, flew simultaneously in space. Cosmonauts Pyotr Klimuk and Vitaly Sevastyanov have been working aboard the Salyut-4 orbital station for the eighth week already.

The "Magnificent Seven" attracted the attention of millions of people around the world.

The completed flight of the Soyuz-19 and Apollo spacecraft, which crowned the work of many thousands of people, was a major contribution to world cosmonautics. The implementation of the Soyuz-Apollo project is a solution - and, moreover, an original, talented one - of a large and complex scientific and technical problem of creating compatible means of rendezvous and docking of spacecraft. Joint space experiments, which required the participation of two crews, two ships, will be bright pages in the history of space research.

The development of the Soyuz-Apollo project and the joint flight of spacecraft are not only scientific and technical aspects, but also of great political importance.

This is the beginning of the era of international projects in space exploration and joint space experiments with the participation of cosmonauts from different countries.

This is a combination of technical ideas, methods and styles of work based on the experience of two advanced countries with major achievements in space exploration.

The word "docking" has already become synonymous with contacts between different teams that combine their efforts to solve complex problems in the name of scientific, technological and social progress.

This is an example, following which it is possible to solve many difficult problems together in an atmosphere of mutual understanding and business cooperation.

As a result of space research under the programs of international cooperation, a number of scientific discoveries, made a significant contribution to the science of space, received a lot of new data on the processes occurring on the Sun and their influence on the atmosphere and ionosphere of the Earth. Practical results, tangible for the peoples of different countries, have been brought by the joint work of scientists and specialists from cooperating countries in the field of space communications and space meteorology. Cooperation in the study of terrestrial resources from space promises very broad prospects.

A characteristic feature of work under international programs is the atmosphere of business cooperation and the atmosphere of friendship and mutual understanding that has been established between scientists and specialists conducting joint research.

Prospects for the development of international cooperation in the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes are broad and varied. Joint experiments and a wide exchange of scientific information between scientists from different countries will make it possible to quickly learn the laws of the development of the Universe, the influence of processes occurring on the Sun, the Earth's atmosphere and all living things, to accelerate practical use achievements of space technology for national economic purposes in the name of the social progress of mankind.

B. N. PETROV, academician,
Chairman of the Council for International Cooperation
in research and use
outer space at the Academy of Sciences of the USSR