home Social science What are the townspeople in the Middle Ages. Historical geography. Medieval cities of Western Europe

What are the townspeople in the Middle Ages. Historical geography. Medieval cities of Western Europe

Medieval cities of Western Europe

The emergence of the city is a phenomenon of the era of developed feudalism. Indeed, if in the early Middle Ages in Europe there were only a few dozen (at best, several hundred) more or less large settlements of the urban, or rather, pre-urban type, then by the end of the 15th century. on the territory of the continent there were approximately 10 thousand different cities. Medieval city arose as a result of the process of separation of craft from agriculture. We will not dwell here on all aspects of this problem, but will consider only its geographical aspect.

Part of the medieval cities was territorially connected with the former Roman cities; this applies to Italian, French, Spanish, partly English and German cities. The motives for choosing their location were very diverse: geographical factors played a role here (for example, many northern Italian cities - Verona, Brescia, Vicenza, etc. - arose in places where mountain valleys merged with the plain; others - in convenient places on the sea coast or along rivers - Naples, Pavia, etc.), military considerations (this is how most of the Roman centers of Rhine Germany and Northeast Gaul arose); many cities were based on the sites of former settlements of the tribes conquered by Rome (Nantes - Nam-nets, Angers - Adekava, Poitiers - Pictons, Autun - Aedui, etc.).

However, the confinement of the medieval city to the location of the former Roman center was by no means always direct. Many Roman cities that flourished in antiquity later fell into decay, if not ceased to exist altogether; on the contrary, many insignificant settlements of antiquity in the Middle Ages turned into large urban centers. Often a medieval city did not grow up on the site of a Roman settlement, but in its neighborhood or even at some distance from it.

Such, for example, was the fate of St. Albany (Roman Verulamium) in England, the French Autun, Clermont-Ferrand, Beaucaire, Metz, Verdun, Narbonne and many other cities. Even in Italy itself, medieval cities sometimes did not coincide geographically with ancient ones (Ravenna, for example). In some cases, the very name of the Roman center in the Middle Ages changed to a new one - Lutetia turned into Paris, Argentorata - into Strasbourg, Augustobona became Troyes, etc.

As a rule, these topographic shifts were based on the political events of the transitional era from antiquity, pogroms and the destruction of barbarian conquests. But, perhaps even more important, the cities lost their former economic role and acquired new functions, becoming church and monastic centers, residences of large magnates and kings, etc.; this could not but affect their topography.

Therefore, even though they retained a territorial connection with the city of the Roman era, the settlements of the early Middle Ages actually ceased to be cities. So, in the Carolingian era in France, the cities - the residences of the archbishops (Lyon, Reims, Tours, etc.) had the greatest weight and importance; of 120 German cities in the 11th century. 40 were episcopal, 20 were located near large monasteries, and the remaining 60 were the centers of large feudal estates (including 12 of them - royal residences).

The process of the emergence of a feudal city as a center of crafts and trade in the mass dates back to the era of the developed Middle Ages, although in some places cities arose several centuries earlier - these are the Mediterranean ports of Amalfi, Gaeta, Bari, Genoa, Venice, Palermo, Marseille and some others, successfully used in the IX-X centuries. weakening of Arab and Byzantine influence in the southern trading region. Some trade and craft centers that are not associated with maritime trade are also rising; such a city in the X century. Pavia became in northern Italy, located at the confluence of the Ticino and the Po and at the crossroads from the Alps to the Apennines; a significant role in its rise was played by the fact that it was the traditional capital of the Lombard kingdom. big city was Ravenna - the center of Byzantine rule in Italy.

In the XI-XII centuries. cities of North-East France, Rhenish Germany, Flanders, Central, East and South England, Central and Northern Italy are created and receive certain political rights; somewhat later, cities arose in other regions of the continent. In Germany, for example (later - the Empire), the territorial picture of the emergence of cities looked as follows. Until the 13th century almost all the cities of the country were located west of the Elbe and along the Upper Danube, practically without crossing the Lübeck-Vienna line. The bulk of the cities that arose in the 13th century were already in the interfluve of the Elbe and Oder; separate groups of them were concentrated in Northern Bohemia, Silesia, in the upper and lower reaches of the Vistula. And only in the XIV century. cities filled almost the entire territory of Central Europe, to the west of the Koenigsberg-Krakow line. In the 15th century, only separate cities were founded between the Elbe and the Vistula (several dozen in total), the vast majority of them already existed by that time. In other countries, this process was completed even earlier: in England, for example, the vast majority of medieval urban centers have been known since the 13th century.

When cities arose on the site of former villages, this was often reflected in their names; such cities in Germany were cities with “rural” endings in “ingen”, “heim”, “dorf”, “hausen” (Tübingen, Waldorf, Mühlhausen, etc.). The factors that contributed to the transformation of the former settlement into a city or the emergence of a new urban center were very diverse .. Both military and political circumstances (the need for a fortress, patronage from the local lord), and socio-economic motives (for example, the existence traditional market, transshipment point of goods, etc.).

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Europe is famous for its abundance of beautiful medieval cities, usually well-preserved. Many of them, in particular European capitals, are well known to tourists. However, in the Old World there is also big number small old towns, less "promoted", but no less interesting. They may seem especially attractive to tourist photographers, for example, those who master the art of shooting from quadrocopters. A large assortment of high-quality and varied drones at a price is presented on the website: https://brrc.ru/catalog/kvadrokoptery/.

The most famous medieval town in Belgium is, of course, Bruges, often called the "Venice of the North" because of the abundance of canals. The history of Bruges began in 1128 and today its old center is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. In addition to getting to know the local architectural monuments and boating on the canals, tourists have fun tasting a variety of beers and chocolates.

The small Belgian town of Dinan is less known, but no less picturesque. In the city, which is home to only 14,000 inhabitants, tourists will be interested in medieval architecture, as well as landscapes - the embankment of the Mosa River and the surrounding rocks that frame the town.

The city of Bled in Slovenia is one of the most picturesque corners of this country. It is located on the shores of the lake of the same name Bled and is famous for its castles and temples. The best panoramas of the area are obtained when shooting from quadrocopters.

In Germany there are many interesting places that have preserved their medieval architecture. So, Regensburg, founded almost two thousand years ago, is one of the oldest cities in the country. The main attraction is the well-preserved medieval center with a cathedral, a bridge and Gothic buildings.

The real kingdom of fachwerk is called german city Freudenberg is located in North Rhine-Westphalia. In the old center there are many black and white half-timbered houses standing in orderly rows, this view is business card Freudenberg.

Swiss Gruyere is not only the name of one of the most famous cheese varieties, but also a historic city in the canton of Friborg. Here you can see remarkable old buildings and a medieval castle. Another small Swiss town recommended for visiting by anyone interested in beautiful medieval buildings is Murren in the canton of Bern. It is located at an altitude of 1650 m in the Lauterbrunnen valley, surrounded by three of the most famous Swiss peaks - Eiger, Monk and Jungfrau. There are always a lot of tourists here, the number of which exceeds the number of local residents (450 people) at times.

In the UK, it is very difficult to single out the most interesting medieval towns, but it is worth mentioning Bibury - "the most beautiful village in England", sung by the poet William Morris, and famous for its buildings of the 14th century, as well as small village Castle Combe in Wiltshire, named one of the most attractive British settlements by The Times.

France is also rich in small medieval towns, among which Collioure occupies a special place with a picturesque castle, the ancient church of Notre Dame des Ange and an ancient lighthouse, as well as Joscelin, a fabulous town in the Brittany region, with an equally impressive castle built in 1008.

San Gimignano in Tuscany (Italy) is a medieval walled city. Here, tourists will be interested in the old center with a cathedral and many ancient towers, included in 1990 in the UNESCO World Heritage List. The town of Funes in the Italian Tyrol is not spoiled by tourists, so it is suitable for those who are looking for not only beautiful landscapes in Europe, but also solitude. Local views will delight even sophisticated landscape photographers.

AT northern Europe Reine is worth a visit - a village in Norway, which has repeatedly occupied the top lines in the ratings of the most beautiful places in this country. Reine, founded in 1793 as a port, is located on the Lofoten Islands, surrounded by picturesque mountains.

The composition of the population of the medieval city was extremely heterogeneous. It was dominated by artisans who themselves sold their own products, combining an artisan and a merchant in one person.

Most of the urban population was involved in the service sector. They included hairdressers, owners of inns, laborers, servants, etc. Feudal lords with their vassals and servants, representatives of the royal administration, "black" and "white" clergy lived in large cities. Professors, masters and university students, lawyers, doctors belonged to the urban population. Gradually, merchants appeared in the cities.

Almost every medieval city was filled with beggars. At first, they were treated with understanding and sympathy. The disadvantaged have always known that near churches and monasteries they can be given shelter, food, clothing or money. This situation existed until the middle of the 15th century. It was then that hired labor became widespread in all spheres of urban life, in connection with which the poor began to be perceived as cheap labor. Now it was possible to ask for alms only with the permission of the city authorities. Often this led to starvation of those beggars who were at the bottom of city life.

15th century Augsburg Beggar's Regulations

The Council recognized it as necessary and decided: first of all, in the future it is protected by everyone, whether married people, women or men, widows or unmarried people, aliens or locals, burghers or city residents, to collect alms both during the day and at night, only according to permission and by order of the honorary council, from which they (in this case) must receive a special badge, namely a tin token. This token must be worn and carried by anyone who asks for alms, and without it it is forbidden to ask for it. The exception is foreign pilgrims and passing beggars, who are allowed to beg here for three days and no more. Those female and male persons who, as already mentioned, are allowed to beg, it is necessary to wait for alms daily in front of the church, having their children near them, whom they protect themselves from sending for alms.

The population of medieval cities was relatively small. Cities where 20-30 thousand people lived were considered large, 3-5 thousand people were considered medium. But there were also towns where 1-2 thousand citizens lived. In giant cities, the population reached 80-100 thousand, for example, Paris, Milan, Venice, Florence, Cordoba, Seville. Interestingly, in England in the XIV century. only two cities had more than 10 thousand people - London and York. The capital of Byzantium, Constantinople, significantly exceeded Western European cities in terms of population. During the periods of the highest prosperity in Constantinople, there were from 300 to 400 thousand inhabitants.

At first, the townspeople, along with crafts and trade, continued to engage in agriculture. They had gardens, orchards, kept cattle. This phenomenon was observed mainly in small towns. Although the connection between the urban dweller and agriculture remained for a long time.

Medieval cities for defense against attacks were usually surrounded by high stone or wooden walls with towers and deep moats filled with water. The city gates were closed at night. The walls surrounding the city usually limited its territory. With the resettlement of the population from the villages, it became crowded. The territory had to be repeatedly expanded, building new fortifications around the old wall. Thus, suburbs arose, populated mainly by artisans. It was the artisans, together with the merchants, who were the guards and replenished the city military militia. They had to have weapons and be able to use them.

The market square was located in the center of the city. It has always been crowded. Citizens came here not only to buy or sell something, but also to meet friends and hear the news. New decrees of the king, orders of the city authorities were announced here, various holidays were held. There were two buildings near the market square: Cathedral - the main Christian temple of the city and town hall . The city council met and sat in the town hall - magistrate .

Closer to the center were the houses of the most prosperous and respected citizens. 11o a house in the city could be acquired only by obtaining all city rights. Full-right citizens in each country were called in their own way: in Germany - burghers , in Italy in half , in France - bourgeois . The rest of the population were ordinary city dwellers.

Facade of the Cathedral in Siena

Since the territory of the city was small, the streets were narrow. Their width usually reached the length of the spear. Houses literally "stuck" on top of each other and were built in 2-3 floors. Main building materials were stone, wood, straw. The foundations were made narrow, and the upper floors often hung over the lower ones, because the land in the city was very expensive. The streets were always twilight, even on bright sunny days. The streets were also not lit at night. If a person was forced to go through the city at night, he had to take a bowl or a torch. Cities with wooden buildings and thatched roofs often suffered from devastating fires. Therefore, there was a rule: with the onset of night, put out the lights in the houses.

Medieval city. Engraving

City streets were inhabited mainly by artisans of a certain specialty, as evidenced by their names. There were streets of potters, weavers, shoemakers, tanners, blacksmiths, gunsmiths, etc. The entrance to the craft workshop was decorated with a special emblem. It symbolized the products that the craftsman made: kalach, boot, sword, key, etc. The windows of each workshop, as a rule, faced the street. During the day the shutters were opened. The upper half was used as a canopy, and the lower half was used as a counter where goods were displayed. Through the open window one could see how certain products were made. material from the site

In medieval cities, the streets were not paved, because in the summer heat there was a column of dust, and in spring and autumn the mud was knee-deep. Slop was poured directly into the street, and household garbage was also thrown there. There was a disgusting smell in the streets of the cities.

Once the French King PhilipII August, opening the window in the morning, fainted. As it turned out, the reason for this was extremely unpleasant smells from the Parisian streets. After this unfortunate incident, the king ordered the road to be paved with stone. This was probably the first medieval pavement. Bridges appear around the middle of the 13th century, but not in all European cities. It is known that at the end of the XV century. the inhabitants of the city of Reutlingen persuaded the German emperor FriedrichIII not to come to them because of the terrible state of the streets. Not listening to advice, the king almost died along with his horse in a swamp on one of the city streets.

Overcrowding, lack of hygiene, general unsanitary conditions turned the city into a real breeding ground for pathogens and epidemics. From them, sometimes a third, or even half of the urban population died out. The medieval city was also poorly supplied with drinking water. The first water pipes appeared around the 12th-13th centuries. in Italy. Subsequently, people realized that it was dirt and sewage that caused the appearance and spread of epidemics. That is why already at the end of the XIII century. magistrates begin to issue orders for the improvement of cities.

Taverns were an integral part of the colorful life of the medieval city. Here, citizens and visitors could have a good rest and have fun. Starting from the 12th century, hotels and public baths appeared in the cities, where hairdressers offered their services to visitors. An ordinary hairdresser could also perform a simple surgical operation or, if necessary, bleed the patient. Medieval hospitals, and there were many of them in the cities, were called infirmaries after the biblical healer Saint Lazarus.

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THE LOOK OF CITY STREETS

Pavements in Paris appeared in the 12th century - every citizen had to make sure that the street in front of his house was paved. This measure was then extended by the 14th century by royal order to other French cities. But, for example, in Augsburg there were no pavements until almost the 15th century, as well as sidewalks. Drainage ditches appeared only in the XIV-XV centuries, and then only in large cities.

Garbage and sewage in cities was usually dumped into rivers or into nearby ditches. Only in the XIV century. urban scavengers appeared in Paris.

FThe eudal city bears little resemblance to the modern one. He was usually surrounded by walls, which he needed to defend himself from attacks by enemies, to give shelter and rural population in case of invasion.

The inhabitants of the city, as already mentioned, had their gardens, their fields, their pastures. Every morning, at the sound of the horn, all the gates of the city were opened, through which the cattle were driven out to the communal pastures, and in the evening these cattle were again driven into the city. In the cities they kept mainly small livestock - goats, sheep, pigs. The pigs were not driven out of the city, they found plenty of food in the city itself, since all the garbage, all the remnants of food were thrown right there into the street. Therefore, there was an impossible dirt and stench in the city - it was impossible to walk along the streets of a medieval city without getting dirty in the mud. During the rains, the streets of the city were a swamp in which carts got stuck and sometimes a rider with a horse could drown. In the absence of rain, it was impossible to breathe in the city because of the caustic and fetid dust. Under such conditions, epidemic diseases in the cities were not transmitted, and during the great epidemics that flared up from time to time in the Middle Ages, the cities suffered the most. Mortality in the cities was unusually high. The population of cities would decrease continuously if it were not replenished with new people from the villages. the essence of the enemy. The population of the city carried out guard and garrison service. All the inhabitants of the city - merchants and artisans - were able to wield weapons. City militias often inflicted defeat on the knights. The ring of walls behind which the city was located did not allow it to grow in breadth.

Gradually, suburbs arose around these walls, which in turn also strengthened. The city thus developed in the form of concentric circles. The medieval city was small and cramped. In the Middle Ages, only a small part of the country's population lived in cities. In 1086, a general land census was carried out in England. Judging by this census, in the second half of the XI century. in England, no more than 5% of the total population lived in cities. But even these townspeople were not yet quite what we understand by urban population. Some of them were still engaged in agriculture and had land outside the city. AT late XIV in. in England a new census was made for tax purposes. It shows that already about 12% of the population at that time lived in cities. If we move from these relative figures to the question of the absolute number of urban population, we will see that even in the XIV century. cities with 20 thousand people were considered large. On average, there were 4-5 thousand inhabitants in cities. London, in which in the XIV century. there were 40 thousand people, was considered a very large city. At the same time, as we have already said, most cities are characterized by a semi-agrarian character. There were many "cities" and purely agrarian type. They also had crafts, but rural crafts prevailed. Such cities differed from villages mainly only in that they were walled and presented some features in management.

Since the walls prevented cities from expanding in breadth, the streets were narrowed to the last degree to accommodate the possible pain. better order ny, the houses hung over each other, the upper floors protruded above the lower ones, and the roofs of the houses located on opposite sides of the street almost touched each other. Each house had many outbuildings, galleries, balconies. The city was cramped and crowded with residents, despite the insignificance of the urban population. The city usually had a square - the only more or less spacious place in the city. On market days, it was filled with stalls and peasant carts with all kinds of goods brought from the surrounding villages.
Sometimes there were several squares in the city, each of which had its own special purpose: there was a square where grain trade took place, on another one they traded hay, etc.

CULTURE (HOLIDAYS AND CARNIVALS)

Among the definitions that scientists give to a person - "reasonable person", "social being", "working person" - there is also this: "playing person". "Indeed, the game is an integral feature of a person, and not just a child. People of the medieval era loved games and entertainment just as much as people at all times.
Harsh living conditions, heavy piles, systematic malnutrition were combined with holidays - folk, which dated back to the Pagan past, and church, partly based on the same Pagan tradition, but transformed and adapted to the requirements of the church. However, the attitude of the church towards folk, primarily peasant, festivities was ambivalent and contradictory.
On the one hand, she was powerless to simply ban them - the people stubbornly held on to them.
It was easier to bring the national holiday closer to the church one. On the other hand, throughout the Middle Ages, clergy and monks, referring to the fact that "Christ never laughed", condemned unbridled fun, folk songs and dances. dances, the preachers asserted, the devil invisibly rules, and he carries away the merry people straight to hell.
Nevertheless, fun and celebration were ineradicable, and the church had to reckon with this. jousting tournaments, no matter how askance the clergy looked at them, remained a favorite pastime of the noble class. By the end of the Middle Ages, a carnival took shape in the cities - a holiday associated with seeing off winter and welcoming spring. Instead of unsuccessfully condemning or forbidding the carnival, the clergy preferred to take part in it.
During the days of the carnival, all prohibitions on fun were canceled and even religious rites were ridiculed. At the same time, the participants in the carnival buffoonery understood that such permissiveness was permissible only during the days of the carnival, after which the unbridled fun and all the outrages that accompanied it would stop and life would return to its usual course.
However, it happened more than once that, having begun as a fun holiday, the carnival turned into a bloody battle between groups of wealthy merchants, on the one hand, and artisans and urban lower classes, on the other.
The contradictions between them, caused by the desire to take over the city government and shift the burden of taxes on opponents, led to the fact that the carnival participants forgot about the holiday and tried to deal with those whom they had long hated.

LIFE (SANITARY CONDITION OF THE CITY)

Due to the overcrowding of the urban population, the many beggars and other homeless and homeless people, the lack of hospitals and any regular sanitary supervision, medieval cities were constantly breeding grounds for all kinds of epidemics.
The medieval city was characterized by a very unsanitary condition. The narrow streets were quite stuffy. They were mostly unpaved. Therefore, in hot and dry weather in the city it was very dusty, in inclement weather, on the contrary, it was dirty, and carts could hardly pass through the streets and passers-by made their way.
AT settlements there is no drain for sewage disposal. Water is obtained from wells and stagnant springs, which often get infected. Disinfectants are not yet known.
Due to the lack of sanitation, women in labor often do not survive difficult births, and many babies die in their first year of life.
For the treatment of simple diseases, they use grandmother's recipes, usually based on medicinal herbs.
In severe cases, the sick decide on bloodletting, which is done by a barber, or they buy drugs from a pharmacist. The poor go to the hospital for help, but the tightness, inconvenience, and dirt leave the seriously ill with almost no chance of surviving.

URBAN POPULATION

The main population of medieval cities were artisans. They became peasants who fled from their masters or went to the cities on the terms of payment of dues to the master. Becoming townspeople, they gradually freed themselves from excellent dependence on the feudal lord. If a peasant who fled to the city lived in it for a certain period, usually one year and one day, then he became free. A medieval proverb said: "City air makes you free." Only later did merchants appear in the cities. Although the bulk of the townspeople were engaged in crafts and trade, many residents of the city had their fields, pastures and gardens outside the city walls, and partly within the city. Small livestock (goats, sheep and pigs) often grazed right in the city, and the pigs ate garbage, leftover food and sewage, which were usually thrown directly into the street.

Craftsmen of a certain profession united within each city into special unions - workshops. In Italy, workshops arose already from the 10th century, in France, England, Germany and the Czech Republic - from the 11th-12th centuries, although the final design of workshops (obtaining special charters from kings, writing workshop charters, etc.) usually took place , later. In most cities, belonging to a guild was a prerequisite for doing a craft. The workshop strictly regulated production and, through specially elected officials, ensured that each master - a member of the workshop - produced products of a certain quality. For example, the weaver's workshop prescribed what width and color the fabric should be, how many threads should be in the warp, what tool and material should be used, etc. The workshop charters strictly limited the number of apprentices and apprentices that one master could have, they forbade work at night and on holidays, limited the number of machines for one artisan, and regulated the stocks of raw materials. In addition, the guild was also a mutual aid organization for artisans, providing assistance to its needy members and their families at the expense of an entrance fee to the guild, fines and other payments in case of illness or death of a member of the guild. The workshop also acted as a separate combat unit of the city militia in case of war.

In almost all the cities of medieval Europe in the 13th-15th centuries, there was a struggle between craft workshops and a narrow, closed group of urban rich (patricians). The results of this struggle varied. In some cities, primarily those where craft prevailed over trade, workshops won (Cologne, Augsburg, Florence). In other cities where merchants played a leading role, handicraft workshops were defeated (Hamburg, Lübeck, Rostock).

Jewish communities have existed in many old cities of Western Europe since the Roman era. Jews lived in special quarters (ghettos), more or less clearly separated from the rest of the city. They were usually subject to a number of restrictions.

THE STRUGGLE OF CITIES FOR INDEPENDENCE

Medieval cities always arose on the land of the feudal lord, who was interested in the emergence of a city on his own land, since crafts and trade brought him additional income. But the desire of the feudal lords to get as much income from the city as possible inevitably led to a struggle between the city and its lord. Often, cities managed to obtain the rights of self-government by paying a large sum of money to the lord. In Italy, cities achieved great independence already in the 11th-12th centuries. Many cities of Northern and Central Italy subjugated significant surrounding areas and became city-states (Venice, Genoa, Pisa, Florence, Milan, etc.)

In the Holy Roman Empire, there were so-called imperial cities, which were actually independent city republics since the 12th century. They had the right to independently declare war, make peace, mint their own coin. Such cities were Lübeck, Hamburg, Bremen, Nuremberg, Augsburg, Frankfurt am Main and others. The symbol of the freedom of the cities of the Holy Roman Empire was the statue of Roland.

Sometimes big cities, especially located on royal land, did not receive the rights of self-government, but enjoyed a number of privileges and liberties, including the right to have elected bodies of city government. However, such bodies acted jointly with the representative of the seigneur. Paris and many other French cities had such incomplete rights of self-government, for example, Orleans, Bourges, Lorris, Lyon, Nantes, Chartres, and in England - Lincoln, Ipswich, Oxford, Cambridge, Gloucester. But some cities, especially small ones, remained entirely under the control of the seigneurial administration.

CITY SELF-GOVERNMENT

Self-governing cities (communes) had their own court, military militia, and the right to levy taxes. In France and England, the head of the city council was called the mayor, and in Germany, the burgomaster. The obligations of commune towns towards their feudal lord were usually limited only to the annual payment of a certain, relatively low amount of money and sending a small military detachment to help the lord in case of war.

The municipal government of the urban communes of Italy consisted of three main elements: the power of the people's assembly, the power of the council and the power of the consuls (later the podestas).

Civil rights in the cities of northern Italy were enjoyed by adult male homeowners with property subject to taxation. According to the historian Lauro Martinez, only 2% to 12% of the inhabitants of the northern Italian communes had the right to vote. According to other estimates, such as those given in Robert Putnam's Democracy in Action, in Florence civil rights accounted for 20% of the city's population.

The popular assembly (“concio publica”, “parlamentum”) met on the most important occasions, for example, to elect consuls. The consuls were elected for a year and were accountable to the assembly. All citizens were divided into constituencies (“contrada”). They chose members by lot. Grand Council(up to several hundred people). Usually the term of office of members of the Council was also limited to one year. The council was called "credentia" because its members ("sapientes" or "prudentes" - wise) originally took an oath to trust the consuls. In many cities, consuls could not make important decisions without the consent of the Council.

After an attempt to subjugate Milan (1158) and some other cities of Lombardy, Emperor Frederick Barbarossa introduced a new position of podest-mayor in the cities. Being a representative of the imperial power (regardless of whether he was appointed or approved by the monarch), the podesta received the power that previously belonged to the consuls. He was usually from another city so that local interests would not influence him. In March 1167, an alliance of Lombard cities arose against the emperor, known as the Lombard League. As a result, the political control of the emperor over the Italian cities was effectively eliminated and the podestas were now elected by the citizens.

Usually, a special electoral college, formed from members of the Grand Council, was created to elect the podest. She had to nominate three people who are worthy to govern the Council and the city. final decision on this issue was taken by the members of the Council, who elected the podestas for a period of one year. After the end of the term of office of the podest, he could not, for three years apply for a seat on the Council.

characteristic feature Middle Ages was the growth of cities. This is primarily due to the division of society into social groups and the development of handicrafts. A typical medieval city in Western Europe was a small settlement by modern standards, located near a monastery, fortress or castle. A prerequisite for the construction of a new settlement was the presence of a reservoir - a river or lake. The Middle Ages itself covers a very significant period of time: from the fifth century to the fifteenth (the Renaissance). Many cities of the 5th-15th centuries were real fortresses, surrounded by a wide rampart and a fortress wall, which made it possible to keep the defense during the siege, since wars were not uncommon for this period of time.

The European medieval city was an unsafe place, life in it was quite difficult. If high walls and an active army saved from devastating raids of foreign troops, then stone fortifications were powerless against diseases. Frequent epidemics that broke out in the thousands claimed the lives of ordinary citizens. One plague epidemic could cause incomparable damage to the city. The following reasons for the rapid spread of the plague among the 5th-15th centuries can be noted. Firstly, the state of medicine of those times did not allow to deal with a single focus of the disease. As a result, the "Black Death" spread first among the inhabitants of one settlement, then went far beyond its borders, acquiring the character of an epidemic, and sometimes a pandemic. Secondly, despite the small number of inhabitants, in such cities it was quite high. The overcrowding of people was the best way to contribute to the spread of the infection, which is quickly transmitted from a sick person to a healthy one. Thirdly, according to modern people the medieval city was a collection of rubbish, household waste and animal excrement. Unsanitary conditions are known to contribute to the emergence of many dangerous diseases carried by rats and other small rodents.

However, the birth and expansion of cities had their positive features. So, most of them arose on the lands of large feudal lords or kings. People living in the territory subject to the vassal could be engaged in farming, trade, while receiving a significant income. The vassal, on the other hand, benefited from the prosperity of "his" city, since he could receive the bulk of the income from the taxes of the townspeople.

Description of the medieval city

Most of the cities of 5-15 centuries had from 4 to 10 thousand inhabitants. A city with a population of up to 4 thousand inhabitants was considered medium. The largest medieval city could hardly count 80 thousand inhabitants. Megacities of those times were considered Milan, Florence, Paris. Basically, small merchants, artisans, warriors lived in them, there was a local city nobility. A characteristic feature of European cities of the 12th century was the opening of universities in them and the emergence of students as a separate social class. The first institutions of this kind opened in major centers that time - Oxford, Paris, Cambridge. Their appearance had a significant impact on the development of individual countries and Europe as a whole.

Today, the medieval city seems to us a dull and dangerous place, where even at the height of the day one could become a witness to a robbery or murder. However, there is something romantic in the narrow streets of ancient European cities. How else to explain the increased interest of tourists and travelers in such ancient cities as Sartene (Italy), Cologne (Germany). They allow you to plunge into history, escape from the bustle of the modern "stone jungle", make, albeit short, a journey into the past.