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PERSON AND ITS LIFE SPACE. BASIC STRATEGIES FOR INTERPERSONAL INTERACTION
2. Intrapersonal factors
Literature
1. Personality and its living space
1.1 Concept living space
The concept of living space was introduced into psychology by Kurt Lewin in order to show that the true habitat of a person is not a physical reality and not a social environment, but only those fragments that are reflected in the human mind and on which his behavior is based. In this regard, he proposed to consider a person and his environment as one constellation of interdependent factors, and the combination of these factors was called the living space.
Living space, according to Kurt Lewin, obeys psychological laws that differ significantly from physical laws. For example, the distance from home to school for a student is not equal to the distance from school to home, since the house attracts him, and the school repels him. The living space of a person is determined not so much by the material goods that he owns, but by knowledge about the world, and the possibility of influencing the processes taking place in it. So, for example, the physical space of a person's life can be tens of square meters, but its living space can extend to cosmic limits. The breadth of living space is always associated with the scale of the worldview of a given person, life experience, internal attitudes, and ideological obsession.
Kurt Lewin was the first to put before psychologists the question of what kind of environment a person interacts with. Philosophers-materialists tried to prove that the perception of the world is the same for everyone, and there is some ultimate truth, to which our knowledge strives. However, modern science proceeds from the recognition of the plurality of options for reflecting the surrounding reality, each of which has the right to exist and be studied.
The living space was depicted by Kurt Lewin in the form of an oval, in the center of which there is a circle, symbolizing inner world personality. Living space has two main boundaries: the outer one separates the living space from the real physical and social macroworlds, the inner one separates the inner world of the individual from her psychological environment within the living space. The shell of the internal space is the sensorimotor area, which, according to Kurt Lewin, serves as a kind of filter between the internal and external environment.
In a newborn child, the living space is undifferentiated: he poorly distinguishes the boundaries of his body, he has no ideas about the past and future. As children grow older, their living space expands in time and space. The differentiation between the real and unreal levels of living space begins to grow. The real level is associated with a reflection of real events taking place in the physical and social worlds, the unreal level is filled with fantasies, desires and fears. The degree of differentiation of the internal areas of the living space and the external areas of the living space are interconnected. The more structured a person is, the more structured his idea of the world around him.
The growing differentiation is accompanied by the growth of integration processes, which are manifested in an increase in the complexity and hierarchy of the organization of living space. K. Levin believed that there is a close relationship between intelligence, or, more precisely, psychological age, and the degree of structure of his living space. The most rapid structuring of the living space occurs in childhood and adolescence, since during this period there is a rapid accumulation of knowledge about the world and about oneself.
Those areas of life about which a person is most aware, K. Levin called the space of free movement. Such areas include, for example, professional knowledge. Every good specialist feels free in his field, but, getting into a foreign professional environment, he feels like a beginner who needs the help of a professional. Under the influence of emotional stress, loss of security, severe illness, aging, a regression of the living space can occur, which manifests itself in a reduction in the time perspective, a decrease in the differentiation of individual areas and disintegration. This regression may be temporary or irreversible.
For a more detailed analysis, Kurt Lewin also introduced the concept of a psychological field, which is a certain section of the living space considered in this moment time. A person, finding himself in some kind of life situation, interacts with a limited number of people and objects, and acts in a single role, but at the same time, he has a huge experience behind him, which is forever included in his living space. Therefore, any behavioral response carries the charge of this experience, and can be fully understood only as a consequence of this experience, and also as a step in the implementation of future plans. Kurt Lewin emphasized that the past is represented in the present psychological field by knowledge, attitudes, experienced feelings in relation to those factors that currently affect the personality, as well as those substructures of the inner world of the personality that were formed earlier. The future is represented by those plans, goals, expectations that are relevant to what is happening at a given moment in time.
If you choose an image that would describe the living space, then the spindle is best suited. It is a stick that comes from one point, expands towards the middle and narrows towards the second end. In the same way, the living space of a person expands from childhood to maturity, and narrows in old age. The widest part of the "spindle" falls on the peak of a person's life activity, when he has many social contacts, he is sufficiently informed on a wide range of issues, his inner world is rich and well structured. As a person ages, entire areas of his life space can die off: professional, political, related. They remain represented only by past memories, but do not have a development perspective.
John Kelly significantly reinforced K. Levin's ideas about individual character image of the world, having developed the theory of personal constructs. It is based on the methodology of constructive alternativeism, according to which each person perceives the world in his own way, through the grid of his coordinate system. The units of this system are personal constructs, i.e. criteria by which a person compares and evaluates the objects of the surrounding reality. John Kelly argues that we are not influenced by events, but by our interpretation of those events, which depends on our belief system.
In the last decade, in Russian psychology, interest in studying the living space of the individual, his image of the world and his own picture has increased. life path. Nartova-Bochaver S.K. substantiates the high degree of heuristic nature of the concept of "personal psychological space", pointing out that the state of the boundaries of one's own psychological world largely determines a person's attitude to the elements of the environment, i.e. his attitude in general. Depending on whether it is perceived the world as alien or related, man's own activity is built in it.
1.2 Characteristics of the living space of the individual
Kurt Lewin considered the degree of its structuredness and integration, the breadth of the temporal perspective, and the degree of permeability of its boundaries to be the main characteristics of a person's living space.
Let's consider what characteristics of the living space of the individual are offered by modern authors.
For example, A.A. Bodalev identifies three parameters of the subjective space of the world:
a) the volume or extent of this space, which is determined by what is imprinted and actualized in the mind of a person from the objective space surrounding him;
b) the degree of connection of the content of this subjective space of the world with the present, past and future;
c) the dependence of the content richness of the subjective space of the world on the formation of the personality.
As factors that determine these characteristics, the author calls the age of a person, his natural and social environment, profession, lifestyle, education and personal characteristics.
In turn, L.P. Grimak distinguishes two realities:
1) information-energy and topological relationships of the individual with the surrounding living space
2) subjective modeling of the inner psychological space of the individual, on the basis of which interactions with the real world are built.
According to L.P. Grimak, such characteristics of the internal psychological space as its size and clarity of boundaries have a paramount influence on the subjective comfort of a person. In this connection, a Person can perceive his inner space as too large and empty, and then he will feel uncomfortable. On the contrary, the feeling of tightness of this space leads to the experience of lack of freedom, dependence. A full-fledged "construction" of the subjective model of a person's living space assumes that all three of its components (past, present and future) are available, accessible for mental review and do not close each other.
In NLP, the relationship between past, present and future is called the timeline. In particular, Ted James describes two types of timelines:
1) the Anglo-European type (“next to time”), in which the time line is in front of the subject’s eyes, so that the past is on the left and the future is on the right;
2) the Arabic type (“through time”), in which the time line pierces a person in such a way that the past is behind and the future is ahead.
In view of the foregoing, it should be noted that people of the first type are more oriented in the line of their lives. These people store their experience in the form of systematized pictures of the past and relatively easily find the mentally necessary picture from the images they have. People of the second type are constantly in the present, poorly imagine their future and are not able to use past experience productively.
However, P.I. Yanichev studied the structural properties of personal time, which are reflected and experienced by the subject, namely:
1) Continuity - discontinuity. Perception of the immutability of the passage of time, the impossibility of stopping it.
2) Objectivity - subjectivity. Its objectivity appears for a person as the independence of his current from his actions. Withdrawal into oneself, preoccupation with internal processes creates a sense of one's own time.
3) Irreversibility - reversibility. The irreversibility of physical time and the reversibility of psychological time create illusions in a person.
4) Universality - locality. It's about about universal time for living and non-living objects. Along with it, there are their own scales and scales of time.
5) Uniformity - unevenness. Describes the pace of the passage of time. There is a lot of evidence of a change in the speed of the flow of time due to its fullness of events.
According to the named author, such properties as continuity and objectivity are reflected most adequately and first of all by children. Irreversibility and universality are assimilated worse: half of the older preschoolers believe that it is possible to be in the past.
A well-known representative of transpersonal psychology, K. Wilber, believes that the problems of a particular person stem from where he draws the line between himself and the outside world. The more extensive the space of a person's self-identification, the greater the content of the world a person realizes as his own. He gives four options for resolving the question of where the boundary between Self and non-Self lies:
A) the level of the "mask" - the narrowest territory of the Self, which is equated only with a part of one's consciousness, with what a person presents to others;
B) the level of the ego - the border runs between the consciousness of a person and his body, while there is a conflict between the spiritual and the physical;
C) the body as a whole - the border runs between the body and the outside world, the soul and body are in harmony and unity, but they are opposed to the world;
D) identification of oneself with the Universe, expansion of the space of one's Self to infinity.
According to K. Wilber, any border becomes a source of conflict, so psychotherapy should be aimed at expanding the space of the Self, at achieving consciousness of unity with other people and the world as a whole.
So, we come to a completely logical conclusion that the living space of the individual changes in the course of the individual's life path and has a number of characteristics that are subject to change under the influence of environmental and intrapersonal factors.
2. Intrapersonal factors
2.1 Breadth of living space
The degree of differentiation of its individual parts. This characteristic should be considered in two aspects:
a) intrapersonal differentiation.
b) differentiation of external areas of living space.
Although Kurt Lewin argued that there is a direct relationship between these types of differentiation in terms of severity, there is still no direct correspondence between the components of the personality and areas of the living space, in our opinion.
2.2 The degree of organization and consistency of its parts
It should also be considered in two aspects: intrapersonal structuring and organization of external areas of the living space. This characteristic involves an analysis of the presence or absence of a clear structure, subordination and coordination links.
2.3 Permeability of the outer boundaries of the living space
It can manifest itself in openness to the information and energy flow from the real physical and social worlds. And in the same way it can manifest itself in the response information-energy flow from the side of the subject of the living space. Personality autism can be seen as a manifestation of poor permeability of external boundaries. We can assume different variants of permeability, formed by the degree of permeability from the inside and from the outside: two-sided good or bad permeability and one-sided permeability, in which information flows worse in one direction than in the other.
The permeability of the inner boundaries of the living space, separating the inner world of the individual from its other parts of the living space. Here, too, permeability is bilateral in nature, but concerns the balance between the sensory and motor (more precisely, behavioral) components of the personality. This balance can also be called impressive-expressive.
The degree of realism - the unrealisticness of the living space of the individual.
It is determined by the conformity of the psychological living space to its prototype, i.e. the real world. It should increase as a person accumulates his knowledge about the real environment. A significant bias towards the unrealistic living space in a person indicates that she has mental disorders. Sometimes such a distorted picture of the world can serve as a source of artistic creativity, since art is designed precisely to create new spaces of being.
2.4 The degree of activity of managing one's living space on the part of the individual
In the works of Kurt Lewin, the term "field of power" appears, by which he understood the ability of one person to induce forces acting on another person. He believed that it is possible to single out the strength and boundaries of the field of power in each person. The power field of the "leader" is always greater than the power field of the "follower". Kurt Lewin illustrates this concept, using the example of how children's behavior changes in the presence of an authoritative adult (for example, a teacher). A person who has power over another person can induce needs in him in accordance with his goals. The field of power is always narrower than the psychological field, since in some areas a person has great power, but not in others. In the process of interaction between people, their fields intersect, and in each specific case The balance of power is changing, and, of course, this rule is unchanged.
2.5 Degree of occupation of living space by people
It is determined by the number of persons who are included by the subject in the living space. First of all, these are people who are significant for him from the family-related sphere, business and friendly spheres of communication. But these are not necessarily people he likes. The main thing is that they were singled out from many other people according to some criterion, they were remembered by him from the past, they influenced him, sometimes by the very fact of existence. They can also inhabit the living space famous people that a person has read or heard about, literary or cinematic characters. It matters to the individual whether these people are persons from the past or whether it is for the most part real people whom he currently sees.
2.6 Breadth of temporal retrospective and perspective
Kurt Lewin noted that a small child has practically no past or future. His future is measured in hours. But with age, a person begins to look very far into his future, making long-term plans. Old people no longer have that perspective, but they do have the wealth of their past, so their retrospective can be very long. However, this does not mean that two people of the same age have the same temporal characteristics of living space. Retrospective is determined by the extent to which events from the past influence a person's behavior in the present, or, in other words, to what extent he extracts experience from his past. Perspective is determined by the extent to which plans and dreams have a strong influence on actual behavior in the present.
Therefore, taking into account the material presented, we need to reflect the concept of the degree of differentiation of time periods and, in addition, determine the integrity of the time perspective and its structure, the degree of eventful saturation of the living space, which are expressed as follows:
The degree of differentiation of time intervals.
It is determined by the fractionality of the time intervals that serve as certain milestones. For some people, the unit of analysis can be a year or even months, for others, five years or decades (before school, school, university, etc.). It is known that the events of the recent past are more differentiated than the events of long ago.
The integrity of the time perspective and its structure.
By integrity, we mean the continuity of impressions of the past, present and future, in which the continuity of the present is seen as a natural transition from past events to future events.
With such a perception of his life path, a person sees in his current actions the consequences of past experience and the influence of future goals.
As for structuredness, it is associated with the perception of connections between events and their categorization according to the degree of significance for the subject. Unstructuredness is manifested in the sequence of events of varying degrees of importance for each individual.
The degree of event saturation of the living space.
This characteristic is determined by the number of events that the subject considers important milestones in his life path. John Kelly noted that the event is not engraved with its meaning, people themselves attach a certain value to it. In accordance with this, a person who appreciates the joys that life sends him will perceive his life as rich in joyful events.
The study of personality through these characteristics allows the psychologist to see the world through her eyes and help optimize the worldview.
3. Strategies for the interaction of the individual with the environment
living space
The perception of the surrounding reality by a person has a subjective nature, since it is determined by the nature of the interpretation of life events. Being in the same life circumstances, some people consider the people around them as leaders to follow, others as competitors in the struggle for the blessings of life, and still others as like-minded people in achieving common goals.
In psychology, there a large number of typologies of personality, but there is much in common between them, which is due to a limited set of strategies for the interaction of the subject with the outside world. Let's consider some strategies of interpersonal interaction of a person with the physical and social environment, in the conceptual understanding of their authors.
3.1 Strategies for interpersonal interaction based on a single concept of human style
For example, A.V.Libin, offering a unified concept of a person's style, names the following as the main characteristics of a person's interaction with the physical and social environment.
· Intensity - moderation, which characterizes the energy potential of the individual and the degree of activity in the development and transformation of the environment;
· Stability - variability, which determines the richness of the repertoire of behavioral strategies of the individual;
Breadth - the narrowness of the range of interaction, which manifests itself in the degree of articulation of behavior:
· Involvement - distance as a measure of the autonomy of the functioning of the subject.
The most fundamental of the listed characteristics is the last one, since it is this characteristic that sets the direction of the interaction of the subject with the outside world. Within this parameter, two extreme options can be considered: different forms(avoidance, care, contemplation) and active interaction with the objective environment. If we consider the area of social interaction as an environment, then active interaction will acquire two more characteristics: a sign and a position. As a result, we get the following scheme of interaction of the subject with other people.
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Rice. 1. Basic strategies for interpersonal interaction.
Let us consider below how these strategies are represented in personality typologies proposed by foreign psychologists.
3.2 Interpersonal interaction strategies based on five social types character by Eric Fromm
Eric Fromm described five social character types:
Receptive type, which is characterized by dependence on other people and passivity;
Exploitative type, which is characterized by aggressiveness, the desire to subjugate other people, egocentrism;
· Accumulating type, which is distinguished by the desire for isolation from other people, rigidity, restraint;
· Market type, which on the one hand is open to the new, inquisitive, but on the other hand cynical and devastated;
Productive type - the only variant of a productive personality type that combines the main positive features (independence, calmness, goodwill, creativity).
If we correlate these types of characters with the proposed scheme, then the following correspondence will be found.
· The receptive type of character refers to the strategy of subordination;
· Exploitative type of character - to the strategy of negative dominance;
· Accumulative type of character - to the strategy of avoidance;
· Market type of character - to the strategy of competition;
· Productive type of character - to the strategy of cooperation.
3.3 Interpersonal interaction strategies based on three personality types in accordance with the leading orientation in relations with other people according to K. Horney
K. Horney proposed a classification consisting of three personality types in accordance with the leading orientation in relations with other people:
Compliant type (submissive and passive);
Hostile type (dominant and aggressive);
Separate type (secluded and self-sufficient).
It is easy to see that they are fully consistent with the strategies of submission, negative dominance and avoidance.
The strategies described above are especially vividly presented in typologies based on interpersonal relationships and communication styles.
3.4 Strategies for interpersonal interaction based on the division of people into two groups according to the way they resolve the conflict
According to D. Schmertz, all people can be divided into two groups, depending on how they resolve the conflict between two opposite needs: to belong to other people, to have close contacts with them and to be free, internally integrated.
He proposes a classification of personalities depending on their attitude towards other people, the degree of socialization and the type of aggression. The level of socialization in his typology increases from the first type to the fourth in both columns. The first two options in both columns are characterized by an external manifestation of aggression, and the third and fourth types are characterized by the suppression of aggression or its focus on oneself.
Table 1. Typology of personalities according to D. Schmertz.
|
belonging to other people |
Individuals who prefer autonomy from people |
|
|
1. Low socialized. |
||
|
Hypocritical, sadistic. |
Narcissism. |
|
|
Passive-aggressive personalities. |
Passive-aggressive and avoidant. |
|
|
4. Strive for intimacy. masochistic type. |
As can be seen from the description of these types, they are also divided according to the signs of distance, sign and position in relations with other people.
3.5. Interpersonal interaction strategies based on a combination of two parameters according to the classification proposed by T. Leary
T. Leary's classification is based on a combination of two parameters: dominance-submission and friendliness-hostility. The combination of friendliness and dominance corresponds to the strategy of positive dominance, the combination of friendliness and submission corresponds to the strategy of submission, the combination of hostility and dominance corresponds to the strategy of negative dominance, the combination of hostility and submission is close in meaning to the strategy of avoidance.
3.6 Strategies for interpersonal interaction based on the orientation of the individual to the internal or external world proposed by K. Jung
The typology proposed by K. Jung is the most generally recognized in foreign psychology. It is built, on the one hand, on the criterion of a person's orientation to the inner or outer world, on the other hand, on the leading channel for obtaining information (sensation, intuition, thinking and feeling). The combination of extraversion or introversion with the dominant channel of information gives eight variants of personality types. K. Jung considered the source of information, on the basis of which the person builds his behavior, in other words, his mental experience, to be fundamental for determining the type of personality.
3.7 Interpersonal interaction strategies based on 16 personality types developed by M. Myers and K. Brigg
M. Myers and C. Brigg at the end of the 50s of the last century developed a classification of personalities based on the ideas of C. Jung, which includes 16 types. It is based on three criteria from the theory of C. Jung and one new criterion:
1. a way to replenish energy reserves (extraversion - introversion);
2. method of collecting information (sensory - intuition);
3. way of making a decision (thinking - feeling);
4. a way of organizing interaction with the outside world (decision - perception).
Combinations of these characteristics give 16 personality types, which the authors and their followers rely on in the selection of work, as well as in various forms of counseling.
3.8 Interpersonal interaction strategies based on personality types with a focus on the inner world and the outer world according to G. Eysenck
The typology of G. Eysenck echoes the typology of K. Jung. One parameter even retained the Jungian name extraversion-introversion. True, G. Eysenck emphasized that his understanding of this parameter is different, since he makes these characteristics dependent on the relationship between the cerebral cortex and subcortical formations. However, G. Eysenck's description of introverts and extroverts is similar to Jung's. Introverts are people who are oriented to their inner world, and extroverts are people who are oriented to the outside world. Neuroticism - emotional stability characterizes the degree of emotional responsiveness to external and internal stimuli.
Table 2. Characteristics of personality types with an orientation to the inner world and the outer world.
In conclusion, let's consider what personal characteristics determine the choice of a strategy for interacting with the environment.
positive dominance. Elected by persons focused on active interaction with other people, these persons feel the strength in themselves to organize and manage the activities of other people, while self-confident, energetic, striving for creation.
Forms of interaction with other people: mentoring, management, guardianship.
negative dominance. It is elected by persons oriented towards the subordination of other people to themselves or oriented towards the objective activity for the sake of which this subordination is carried out. These individuals feel the power to tightly control the activities of other people, while they are confident in their advantages in terms of competition with others.
Forms of interaction with other people: despotism, rigid command.
Subordination. Elected by persons seeking to interact with other people against the background of insufficient independence. These persons are not confident in their abilities, knowledge, strength, they are afraid of loneliness and responsibility for their actions. Passive. They can choose this position for the sake of learning, gaining experience and knowledge, then this is combined with activity.
Forms of interaction with other people: discipleship, assisting, worship, service.
avoidance. Elected by persons oriented to their inner world. These individuals are weakened by illness or age. They lack confidence in themselves and their abilities. Passive. Depressive. Contemplative. Self-sufficient. Independent.
Forms of interaction with other people: going to work, seclusion, hermitage.
parity relationships. They are chosen by harmoniously oriented persons who do not seek to use other people as a means to achieve their goals, but they themselves also do not become a follower.
Creative, with an adequate self-concept.
Forms of interaction with other people: cooperation, partnership, cooperation.
Each person in various life situations resorts to different strategies for interacting with other people because he performs a large number of social roles, but along with this there is a preferred strategy that most suits his personality.
Literature
Main.
1. Shkuratova I.P. Personality and its living space// Psychology of personality. Tutorial ed. P.N. Ermakov and V.A. Labunskaya. M.: EKSMO, 2007, pp. 167-184.
Additional.
1. Bodalev A.A. General and special in the subjective space of the world and the factors that determine them // World of Psychology, 1999, 4, pp. 26-29.
2. Grimak L.P. Hypnosis in the formation of a healthy psychological space of the individual // World of Psychology, 1999, 4, pp. 81-90.
3. Kelly J. Theory of personality. Psychology of personal constructs. St. Petersburg: Speech, 2000. - 249 p.
4. Levin K. Field theory in social sciences. St. Petersburg: Speech, 2000. - 368 p.
5. Libin A.V. A single concept of human style: metaphor or reality? // Human style: psychological analysis. M.: Meaning, 1998.- 310 p.
6. Nartova-Bochaver S.K. The concept of "psychological space of personality" and its heuristic possibilities // psychological science and Education, 2002, No. 1.
7. Wilber K. No boundaries. M. 1998.
8. Fromm E. Man for himself. Minsk: Collegium, 1992. - P.1-115.
9. Horney K. Neurotic personality of our time. M.: Progress, 1993. -480 p.
10. Jung K.-G. Psychological types St. Petersburg: Yuventa, 1995. - 715 p.
11. Yanichev P.I. Development of the structure of experienced-reflected time // RPO Yearbook in 8 volumes. T.8. St. Petersburg: Publishing House of St. Petersburg State University, 2003, pp. 668-673.
12. Schmertz J. The Oderliness of the Psychodynamic Structuring of Personality //Psychology, A Journal of Human Behavior. 1991, vol.28, no. 2, pp.15-26.
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There are different ideas about these spaces in the literature, some of them are mentioned in the article "Living Space". Here are suggestions that do not pretend to reflect the current points of view.
In the personal space of a person, it is advisable to single out the material and spiritual parts. Personal spiritual space can be defined as all the knowledge of a person, his ideas about the world, about God, his attitude towards other people. The spiritual space is largely inaccessible from the side of society, from the outside it can be judged mainly by indirect signs. A person is able to hide his true knowledge, moods, inclinations. Therefore, the inner world of one individual is objectively and at his will essentially separated from the world of another person.
At the same time, the concealment, or even the absence of knowledge and a rich inner world, does not contribute to mutual understanding in society and the influence of a person on this society. On the contrary, you can share your experience not only without harm to yourself, but with benefit for everyone.
Despite the undoubted individuality of the spiritual space, to a large extent it is shaped by upbringing and environment. A citizen often considers beliefs and beliefs to be his family, but in fact they were imposed from the outside, and insufficient education and an uncritical attitude did not allow us to weed out everything random and extraneous.
In the personal material space, you can include things and various resources (financial, housing, land, food), which, to one degree or another, are assigned to each citizen by legal or moral norms. Unlike spiritual, material resources are limited. If they got to one, they did not get to another. Anything that can satisfy the needs of one person will usually work for another. Any material property is potentially the property of any person, and therefore it has to be protected.
In the material space, the boundaries are not determined by the properties of things, but by social norms that can change, be violated, trampled. These rules are conditional. You can have a personal desk at the workplace, a personal bank account, a garden plot, your own room in an apartment for a family, but all this is at the same time the property of more general structures that can change the rules at any time.
Thus, the boundaries of personal space objectively exist, but they are rather arbitrary, relative, transient. But, probably, this is how it should be philosophically for any phenomenon.
The living space of a person, family, organization, state, the whole society is what is covered by their activities and, to one degree or another, is necessary for this activity. In particular, it covers the personal space of a person.
In the living space, one can also distinguish the spiritual and material parts. But here, first of all, it is necessary to pay attention to the second, since all spirituality is concentrated mainly in the heads of living citizens, in their personal spaces. And without people, books and works of art are nothing more than a boring chronology of Egyptian dynasties.
In the broadest sense, the material living space of each person coincides with the living space of mankind - with the planet Earth. Perhaps in the future it will expand to the scale solar system and the Galaxy, but so far the conditions there are clearly not conducive to expansion. Today it is not difficult to visit almost any country. But even if a citizen is an inveterate homebody, he is still aware of world events, which will certainly affect the life of even the most remote corners. Therefore, if we single out the living spaces of each citizen, then they are strongly intertwined and interdependent.
The living space of one person can be divided into different levels, associated respectively with his country, city, enterprise, family, various public organizations. Each level has its own items, resources, symbols, rules of conduct.
Although this can be disputed, but with some reservations, I would include many other people in the living space of a person, and above all, his immediate environment. No matter how independent this environment may be, it is precisely this environment that recognizes the rights of the individual, reflects his ideas and protects his interests. In fact, a person lives as much as he lives in other people. If he is forgotten, and no one needs him, then he is no longer a person as a member of society.
Therefore, along with the development of the actual spaces in meters and resources in kilograms, the study of the ideas of other people, as well as the promotion of their ideas, if the individual considers them useful for himself and for society, is of paramount importance. When mutual understanding is established between people, then meters and kilograms will quickly go. But you won’t achieve anything alone, and even if you chop off a piece of resources for yourself by force, you won’t squeeze much out of it without outside help.
Thus, the living space of other people is actually a continuation of the space of one person. By influencing your neighbors, you can partly manage their economy and have additional opportunities and acquisitions from this. Often this mechanism is used for selfish purposes, and it is not so easy to break it. Against this background, social conflicts are unfolding, somewhere with implicit, and somewhere with explicit claims to dominance and to expand living space, not only physical and material, but also in the minds of citizens.
AT modern world the fight for minds is gaining special meaning. Information is ubiquitous and relatively cheap in itself, it imperceptibly reaches the very depths of a person's spiritual space and thus turns out to be a powerful tool for manipulating people and redistributing social wealth. Today, in front of sophisticated means of influence, the spirituality of a person is more unprotected than ever. Therefore, opening your soul to people, it is not out of place to protect your spiritual space and see if dangerous weeds of imposed ideas have settled in it, attractive at first glance, but leading to disunity of people and therefore destructive for themselves and for society.
So, the concepts of personal and living space, of course, do not occupy a central place in psychology and sociology, but if desired, they can reflect important aspects of personality and community development. N.V. Nevesenko
In biology, living space is understood as average area per individual in the population. Although some animals, like people, mark and defend their territory, but already on a biological basis level(see source) it is clear that decisively vital space may be of a statistical nature, and this space may not always have clear borders(translator's note).
Also from our biological roots comes the need for a person in his space, in his share of resources, even if at some stage it is not conscious. But it can be realized in different ways, respectively, expressed in different actions. For example, one tribe raises precisely domestic animals, another believes that it is easier to take everything from the neighbors.
Therefore, in the absence of the term "decisively vital space", it was, of course, and primitive people and the ancient Romans. However, the formal introduction of any term is always accompanied by a new, more powerful and concrete content. The term is attributed to F. Ratzel (1844-1904), who has a work directly under the title "Living Space" (1901), which is one of the varieties of social Darwinism. According to other sources, the concept is attributed to the 70s of the XIX century.
To the definitely real time may be the largest interest, perhaps, evokes the personality theory of Kurt Lewin (1890-1947), where the concept of exactly life space(translator's note) it takes central place and clearly reflects the social function of man. He is considered the first to introduce the concept of exactly life space(translator's note) in psychology. According to K. Levin, decisively vital space- this is not a few acres behind a high fence, but all the activities of other people. Living space is determined primarily by knowledge and the ability to influence the world around. K. Levin emphasized the dynamism of space.
For example, a citizen came in for sure completely by chance to a chess club, a kennel club, or the office of a political party, met people, discovered mutual interests, and now it began to expand decisively space ...
I will not reproduce here the detailed constructions of K. Levin and, of course, others authors. All of these are easy to find. My goal is to make specialists have this desire. And I would also like to draw your attention to the harmlessness of the appearance of all new terms, in particular, the comfort zone already discussed on the site. No, as it were, the most probably nothing bad, when such concepts are, as it were, the most probably wide are used(translator's note) by specialists. But they often go to the masses with a completely different content, reflecting selfish and political goals.
Each new word heard by a person automatically causes a reaction: why don't I know? Why don't I do what everyone else is doing? A new word always materializes the needs that are most likely at the level subconscious. For example, at one time some citizens in the USSR believed that "we don't have sex." Maybe he really didn't exist in some way. But the word came into use - and sex went for a walk ...
Although the commandments are not one thousand years old, the concept of "human rights" appeared, people gathered under this slogan, and the rights went to walk around the world, becoming almost an on-duty tool of politics, and even violent clashes. And of course, all for human rights, for peace and friendship.
Similarly, the words "resolutely vital" heard among the masses space" and the "comfort zone" do not always arouse interest in knowledge, in establishing contacts between people. The first reaction is completely different: where is my decisively vital space? did anyone dare to step on him?
Therefore, I am not at all enthusiastic about new words that come mainly from the West and do not always contribute to mutual understanding between people. It seems that the goal of the local politicians, philosophers, psychologists is the most noble: not to focus on social conflicts and translate everything into neutral classless terms. But does it really work?
On the contrary, Soviet society was characterized by the other extreme: to explain everything by the class struggle. We agreed that colloquial declared class. (True, the "father of peoples" personally cooled the ardor of too kind scientists in time.)
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Most often, the concept of "living space" is used with the word "organization", meaning putting things in order at one's workplace, distributing working time and other activities related to self-organization. No one will argue that this kind of organization and optimization of living space is very important, because without this it is impossible to achieve success in any of the spheres of life. But there is a more interesting definition of living space that psychology gives it, and from this point of view we will consider it.
Psychology of living space
This concept was introduced by psychologist Kurt Lewin, who believed that human life takes place not so much in the real world as in the world formed by his consciousness on the basis of accumulated knowledge and experience. At the same time, the psychologist proposed to consider the personality and its ideas about the world as a whole, and he called all the factors influencing his consciousness the living space. It should be noted that this space does not obey physical laws at all, a person can sit in solitary confinement, but at the same time his living space will cover kilometers. Its size is influenced by the worldview of a person, and the wider it is, the more living space a person can have.
The dimensions of this space are not constant, increasing as they grow older. Most often, it reaches its maximum by the middle of life, gradually decreasing towards old age. Living space can decrease in a seriously ill or depressed person, he is not interested in anything, there is no craving for new knowledge and acquaintances. Sometimes this process can be reversible.
If there are no serious illnesses and old age is still far away, you can easily expand your living space. You just need to stop being indifferent, there are so many interesting things happening in the world - scientists make discoveries, new music, films and books appear, archaeologists dig up ancient cities, this list is endless. Our life is a book, and it depends only on us whether it will be filled amazing stories or only dullness and dirt will remain on its broken, faded pages.
Shkuratova I.P. Personality and its living space
// Psychology of Personality. Textbook allowance ed. P.N. Ermakova and V.A. Labunskaya. M.: EKSMO, 2007, pp. 167-184.
2.3. Personality and its living space
1. The concept of living space
The concept of living space was introduced into psychology by Kurt Lewin in order to show that the true habitat of a person is not a physical reality and not a social environment, but only those fragments that are reflected in the human mind and on which his behavior is based. In this regard, he proposed to consider a person and his environment as one constellation of interdependent factors, and the combination of these factors was called the living space.
Living space, according to K. Levin, obeys psychological laws, which differ significantly from physical ones. For example, the distance from home to school for a student is not equal to the distance from school to home, since the house attracts him, and the school repels him. The living space of a person is determined not so much by the material goods that he owns, but by knowledge about the world, and the possibility of influencing the processes taking place in it. So, for example, the physical space of a person's life can be tens of square meters, but his living space can extend to cosmic limits. The breadth of living space is always associated with the scale of the worldview of a given individual.
K. Levin was the first to put before psychologists the question of what environment a person interacts with. Philosophers-materialists tried to prove that the perception of the world is the same for everyone, and there is some ultimate truth, to which our knowledge strives. However, modern science proceeds from the recognition of the plurality of options for reflecting the surrounding reality, each of which has the right to exist and be studied.
The living space was depicted by K. Levin in the form of an oval, in the center of which there is a circle, symbolizing the inner world of the individual. Living space has two main boundaries: the outer one separates the living space from the real physical and social macroworlds, the inner one separates the inner world of the individual from her psychological environment within the living space. The shell of the internal space is the sensorimotor area, which, according to K. Levin, serves as a kind of filter between the internal and external environment.
In a newborn child, the living space is undifferentiated: he poorly distinguishes the boundaries of his body, he has no ideas about the past and future. As children grow older, their living space expands in time and space. The differentiation between the real and unreal levels of living space begins to grow. The real level is associated with a reflection of real events taking place in the physical and social worlds, the unreal level is filled with fantasies, desires and fears. The degree of differentiation of the internal and external areas of the living space are interconnected. The more structured a person is, the more structured his idea of the world around him.
The growing differentiation is accompanied by the growth of integration processes, which are manifested in an increase in the complexity and hierarchy of the organization of living space. K. Levin believed that there is a close relationship between intelligence, or, more precisely, psychological age, and the degree of structure of his living space. The most rapid structuring of the living space occurs in childhood and adolescence, since during this period there is a rapid accumulation of knowledge about the world and about oneself.
Those areas of life about which a person is most aware, K. Levin called the space of free movement. Such areas, for example, include professional knowledge. Every good specialist feels free in his field, but, getting into a foreign professional environment, he feels like a beginner who needs the help of a professional. Under the influence of emotional stress, loss of security, severe illness, aging, a regression of the living space can occur, which manifests itself in a reduction in the time perspective, a decrease in the differentiation of individual areas and disintegration. This regression may be temporary or irreversible.
For a more detailed analysis, K. Levin also introduced the concept of a psychological field, which is a certain cut of the living space considered at a given moment in time. A person, finding himself in some kind of life situation, interacts with a limited number of people and objects, and acts in a single role, but at the same time, he has a huge experience behind him, which is forever included in his living space. Therefore, any of his behavioral reactions carries the charge of this experience, and can be fully understood only as a consequence of this experience, and also as a step in the implementation of future plans. K. Levin emphasized that the past is represented in the present psychological field by knowledge, attitudes, experienced feelings in relation to those factors that currently affect the personality, as well as those substructures of the inner world of the personality that were formed earlier. The future is represented by those plans, goals, expectations that are relevant to what is happening at a given moment in time.
If you choose an image that would describe the living space, then the spindle is best suited. It is a stick that comes from one point, expands towards the middle and narrows towards the second end. In the same way, the living space of a person expands from childhood to maturity, and narrows in old age. The widest part of the "spindle" falls on the peak of a person's life activity, when he has many social contacts, he is sufficiently informed on a wide range of issues, his inner world is rich and well structured. As a person ages, entire areas of his life space can die off: professional, political, related. They remain represented only by past memories, but do not have a development perspective.
J. Kelly significantly reinforced K. Levin's ideas about the individual nature of the image of the world by developing the theory of personal constructs. It is based on the methodology of constructive alternativeism, according to which each person perceives the world in his own way, through the grid of his coordinate system. The units of this system are personal constructs, i.e. criteria by which a person compares and evaluates the objects of the surrounding reality. J. Kelly argues that we are not influenced by events, but by our interpretation of these events, which depends on our system of ideas.
In the last decade, in Russian psychology, interest in studying the living space of the individual, his image of the world and the picture of his own life path has increased. Nartova-Bochaver S.K. substantiates the high degree of heuristic nature of the concept of "personal psychological space", pointing out that the state of the boundaries of one's own psychological world largely determines a person's attitude to the elements of the environment, i.e. his attitude in general. Depending on whether the surrounding world is perceived as alien or related, a person's own activity in it is also built.
2. Characteristics of the living space of the individual
K. Levin considered the degree of its structuredness and integration, the breadth of the temporal perspective, as well as the degree of permeability of its boundaries, to be the main characteristics of a person's living space.
Let's consider what characteristics of the living space of the individual are offered by modern authors.
A.A. Bodalev distinguishes three parameters of the subjective space of the world:
a) the volume or extent of this space, which is determined by what is imprinted and actualized in the mind of a person from the objective space surrounding him;
b) the degree of connection of the content of this subjective space of the world with the present, past and future;
c) the dependence of the content richness of the subjective space of the world on the formation of the personality.
As factors that determine these characteristics, the author calls the age of a person, his natural and social environment, profession, lifestyle, education and personal characteristics.
L.P. Grimak distinguishes two realities: 1) information-energetic and topological relationships of an individual with the surrounding living space and 2) subjective modeling of the internal psychological space of a person, on the basis of which interactions with the real world are built. In his opinion, the primary influence on the subjective comfort of a person is exerted by such characteristics of the internal psychological space as its size and clarity of boundaries. A person can perceive his inner space as too large and empty, and then he will feel uncomfortable. On the contrary, the feeling of tightness of this space leads to the experience of lack of freedom, dependence. A full-fledged "construction" of the subjective model of a person's living space assumes that all three of its components (past, present and future) are available, accessible for mental review and do not close each other.
In NLP, their relationship is called the time line. In particular, Ted James describes two types of timelines:
1. Anglo-European type ("next to time"), in which the time line is in front of the subject's eyes, so that the past is on the left and the future is on the right;
2. Arabic type (“through time”), in which the time line pierces a person in such a way that the past is behind and the future is ahead.
People of the first type are more oriented in the line of their life, they store their experience in the form of systematized pictures of the past and relatively easily find mentally necessary from them. People of the second type are constantly in the present, poorly imagine their future and are not able to use past experience productively.
P.I. Yanichev studied the structural properties of personal time, which are reflected and experienced by the subject.
Continuity is discontinuity. Perception of the immutability of the passage of time, the impossibility of stopping it.
Objectivity - subjectivity. Its objectivity appears for a person as the independence of his current from his actions. Withdrawal into oneself, preoccupation with internal processes creates a sense of one's own time.
Irreversibility - reversibility. The irreversibility of physical time and the reversibility of psychological time create illusions in a person.
Universality - locality. We are talking about universal time for living and non-living objects. Along with it, there are their own scales and scales of time.
Uniformity - unevenness. Describes the pace of the passage of time. There is a lot of evidence of a change in the speed of the flow of time due to its fullness of events.
According to the author, such properties as continuity and objectivity are reflected most adequately and first of all by children. Irreversibility and universality are assimilated worse: half of the older preschoolers believe that it is possible to be in the past.
A well-known representative of transpersonal psychology, K. Wilber, believes that the problems of a particular person stem from where he draws the line between himself and the outside world. The more extensive the space of a person's self-identification, the greater the content of the world a person realizes as his own. He gives four options for resolving the question of where the boundary between Self and non-Self lies:
A) the level of the "mask" - the narrowest territory of the Self, which is equated only with a part of one's consciousness, with what a person presents to others;
B) the level of the ego - the border runs between the consciousness of a person and his body, while there is a conflict between the spiritual and the physical;
C) the body as a whole - the border runs between the body and the outside world, the soul and body are in harmony and unity, but they are opposed to the world;
D) identification of oneself with the Universe, expansion of the space of one's Self to infinity.
According to K. Wilber, any border becomes a source of conflict, so psychotherapy should be aimed at expanding the space of the Self, at achieving consciousness of unity with other people and the world as a whole.
So, the living space of the individual changes in the course of the individual's life path and has a number of characteristics that are subject to change under the influence of environmental and intrapersonal factors.
1. Breadth of living space. It is determined by the number of those areas of the real world that the subject considers to be related to his life and which are reflected in his picture of the world.
2. The degree of differentiation of its individual parts. This characteristic should be considered in two aspects: a) intrapersonal differentiation and b) differentiation of external areas of the living space. Although K. Levin argued that there is a direct relationship between these types of differentiation in terms of severity, there is still no direct correspondence between the components of the personality and areas of the living space.
3. The degree of organization and consistency of its parts. It should also be considered in two aspects: intrapersonal structuring and organization of external areas of the living space. This characteristic involves an analysis of the presence or absence of a clear structure, subordination and coordination links.
4. Permeability of the outer boundaries of the living space. It can manifest itself both in openness to the information and energy flow from the real physical and social worlds, and in the response information and energy flow from the side of the subject of the living space. Personality autism can be seen as a manifestation of poor permeability of external boundaries. We can assume different variants of permeability, formed by the degree of permeability from the inside and from the outside: two-sided good or bad permeability and one-sided permeability, in which information flows worse in one direction than in the other.
5. The permeability of the internal boundaries of the living space, separating the inner world of the individual from its other parts of the living space. Here, too, permeability is bilateral in nature, but concerns the balance between the sensory and motor (more precisely, behavioral) components of the personality. This balance can also be called impressive-expressive.
6. Degree of realism - unrealistic living space. It is determined by the conformity of the psychological living space to its prototype, i.e. the real world. It should increase as a person accumulates his knowledge about the real environment. A significant bias towards the unrealistic living space in a person indicates the presence of her mental abnormalities. Sometimes such a distorted picture of the world can serve as a source of artistic creativity, since art is designed precisely to create new spaces of being.
7. The degree of activity of managing one's living space on the part of the individual. In the works of K. Levin, the term "field of power" appears, by which he understood the ability of one person to induce forces acting on another person. He believed that it is possible to single out the strength and boundaries of the field of power in each person. The power field of the "leader" is always greater than the power field of the "follower". K. Levin illustrates this concept by the example of how children's behavior changes in the presence of an authoritative adult (for example, a teacher). A person who has power over another person can induce needs in him in accordance with his goals. The field of power is always narrower than the psychological field, since in some areas a person has great power, but not in others. In the process of interaction between people, their fields intersect, and in each case the balance of forces changes.
8. The degree of occupation of the living space by people. It is determined by the number of persons that are included by the subject in the living space. These are, first of all, people from the family, business and friendly spheres of communication that are significant for him. But these are not necessarily people he likes. The main thing is that they were singled out from many other people according to some criterion, they were remembered by him from the past, they influenced him, sometimes by the very fact of existence. Famous people about whom a person has read or heard, literary or cinematic heroes can also populate the living space. It matters to the individual whether these people are persons from the past or whether they are mostly real people with whom he sees at the present time.
9. Breadth of time retrospective and prospects. K. Levin noted that a small child has practically no past or future. His future is measured in hours. But with age, a person begins to look very far into his future, making long-term plans. Old people no longer have that perspective, but they do have the wealth of their past, so their retrospective can be very long. However, this does not mean that two people of the same age have the same temporal characteristics of the living space. Retrospective is determined by the extent to which events from the past influence a person's behavior in the present, or, in other words, to what extent he extracts experience from his past. Perspective is determined by the extent to which plans and dreams have a strong influence on actual behavior in the present.
2. The degree of differentiation of time intervals. It is determined by the fraction of time intervals that serve as certain milestones. For some people, the unit of analysis can be a year or even months, for others, five years or decades (before school, school, university, etc.). It is known that the events of the recent past are more differentiated than the events of long ago.
3. The integrity of the time perspective and its structure. By integrity, we mean the continuity of impressions of the past, present and future, in which the present is seen as a natural transition from past events to future ones. With such a perception of his life path, a person sees in his current actions the consequences of past experience and the influence of future goals. As for structuredness, it is associated with the perception of connections between events and their categorization according to the degree of significance for the subject. Unstructuredness is manifested in the sequence of events of varying degrees of importance.
4. The degree of event saturation of the living space. This characteristic is determined by the number of events that the subject considers important milestones in his life path. D. Kelly noted that the event is not engraved with its meaning, people themselves attach a certain value to it. In accordance with this, a person who appreciates the joys that life sends him will perceive his life as rich in joyful events.
The study of personality through these characteristics allows the psychologist to see the world through her eyes and help optimize the worldview.
3. Strategies for the interaction of the individual with the environment
The perception of the surrounding reality by a person has a subjective nature, since it is determined by the nature of the interpretation of life events. Being in the same life circumstances, some people consider the people around them as leaders to follow, others as competitors in the struggle for the blessings of life, and still others as like-minded people in achieving common goals.
In psychology, there are a large number of personality typologies, but there is much in common between them, which is due to a limited set of strategies for the interaction of the subject with the outside world.
A.V.Libin, offering a unified concept of human style, names the following as the main characteristics of human interaction with the physical and social environment.
Intensity - moderation, which characterizes the energy potential of the individual and the degree of activity in the development and transformation of the environment;
Stability - variability, which determines the richness of the repertoire of behavioral strategies of the individual;
Breadth - the narrowness of the range of interaction, which manifests itself in the degree of articulation of behavior:
Inclusion - distance as a measure of the autonomy of the functioning of the subject.
The most fundamental of the listed characteristics is the last one, since it is this characteristic that sets the direction of the interaction of the subject with the outside world. Within this parameter, two extreme options can be considered: distance in various forms (avoidance, withdrawal, contemplation) and active interaction with the subject environment. If we consider the area of social interaction as an environment, then active interaction will acquire two more characteristics: a sign and a position. As a result, we get the following scheme of interaction of the subject with other people.
Rice. 1. Basic strategies for interpersonal interaction.
Let us consider how these strategies are represented in personality typologies proposed by foreign psychologists.
E. Fromm described five social types of character:
Receptive, which is characterized by dependence on other people and passivity;
Exploitative, which is characterized by aggressiveness, the desire to subjugate other people, egocentrism;
Accumulating, which is distinguished by the desire for isolation from other people, rigidity, restraint;
Market, which on the one hand is open to the new, inquisitive, but on the other hand cynical and devastated;
Productive is the only variant of a productive personality type that combines the main positive features (independence, calmness, goodwill, creativity).
If we correlate these types of characters with the proposed scheme, then the following correspondence will be found.
Receptive refers to the strategy of submission;
Exploitative - to the strategy of negative dominance;
Cumulative - to the avoidance strategy;
Market - to the strategy of competition;
Productive - to the strategy of cooperation.
K. Horney proposed a classification consisting of three personality types in accordance with the leading orientation in relations with other people:
Compliant type (submissive and passive);
Hostile type (dominant and aggressive);
Separate type (secluded and self-sufficient).
It is easy to see that they are fully consistent with the strategies of submission, negative dominance and avoidance.
The strategies described above are especially vividly presented in typologies based on interpersonal relationships and communication styles.
According to D. Schmertz, all people can be divided into two groups, depending on how they resolve the conflict between two opposite needs: to belong to other people, to have close contacts with them and to be free, internally integrated.
He proposes a classification of personalities depending on their attitude towards other people, the degree of socialization and the type of aggression. The level of socialization in his typology increases from the first type to the fourth in both columns. The first two options in both columns are characterized by an external manifestation of aggression, and the third and fourth types are characterized by the suppression of aggression or its focus on oneself.
Table 1.
Typology of personalities according to Schmertz.
|
belonging to other people |
Individuals who prefer autonomy from people |
|
1. Low socialized. |
1. Isolated. |
|
2. Exploitative. Hypocritical, sadistic. |
2. Arrogant. Narcissism. |
|
3. Depressed. Passive-aggressive personalities. |
3. Suspended. Passive-aggressive and avoidant. |
|
4. Strive for intimacy. masochistic type. |
4. Submissive. |
As can be seen from the description of these types, they are also divided according to the signs of distance, sign and position in relations with other people.
T. Leary's classification is based on a combination of two parameters: dominance-submission and friendliness-hostility. The combination of friendliness and dominance corresponds to the strategy of positive dominance, the combination of friendliness and submission corresponds to the strategy of submission, the combination of hostility and dominance corresponds to the strategy of negative dominance, the combination of hostility and submission is close in meaning to the strategy of avoidance.
The typology proposed by K. Jung is the most generally recognized in foreign psychology. It is built, on the one hand, on the criterion of a person's orientation to the inner or outer world, on the other hand, on the leading channel for obtaining information (sensation, intuition, thinking and feeling). The combination of extraversion or introversion with the dominant channel of information gives eight variants of personality types. K. Jung considered the source of information, on the basis of which the person builds his behavior, in other words, his mental experience, to be fundamental for determining the type of personality.
M. Myers and C. Brigg at the end of the 50s of the last century developed a classification of personalities based on the ideas of C. Jung, which includes 16 types. It is based on three criteria from the theory of C. Jung and one new one:
a way to replenish energy reserves (extraversion - introversion);
way of collecting information (sensory - intuition);
way of making a decision (thinking - feeling);
a way of organizing interaction with the outside world (decision - perception).
Combinations of these characteristics give 16 personality types, which the authors and their followers rely on in the selection of work, as well as in various forms of counseling.
The typology of G. Eysenck echoes the typology of K. Jung. One parameter even retained the Jungian name extraversion-introversion. True, G. Eysenck emphasized that his understanding of this parameter is different, since he makes these characteristics dependent on the relationship between the cerebral cortex and subcortical formations. However, G. Eysenck's description of introverts and extroverts is similar to Jung's. Introverts are people who are oriented to their inner world, and extroverts are people who are oriented to the outside world. Neuroticism - emotional stability characterizes the degree of emotional responsiveness to external and internal stimuli.
table 2
Characteristics of personality types with orientation
to the inner and outer world
|
Predominant orientation to the inner world |
Predominant orientation to the outside world |
|
introversion |
extraversion |
|
contemplation |
Activity |
|
Internal locus of control |
External locus of control |
|
Egocentrism |
Alterocentrism |
|
Autonomy |
Group affiliation |
In conclusion, let's consider what personal characteristics determine the choice of a strategy for interacting with the environment.
positive dominance. Elected by persons focused on active interaction with other people. Feeling in themselves the power to organize and guide the activities of other people. Self-confident. Energetic. Striving for creation.
Forms of interaction with other people: mentoring, management, guardianship.
negative dominance. It is elected by persons oriented towards the subordination of other people to themselves or oriented towards the objective activity for the sake of which this subordination is carried out. Feeling the power to tightly control the activities of other people. Confident in their advantages in terms of competition with others.
Forms of interaction with other people: despotism, rigid command.
Subordination. Elected by persons seeking to interact with other people against the background of insufficient independence. They are not confident in their abilities, knowledge, strengths. They are afraid of loneliness and responsibility for their actions. Passive. They can choose this position for the sake of learning, gaining experience and knowledge, then this is combined with activity.
Forms of interaction with other people: discipleship, assisting, worship, service.
avoidance. Elected by persons oriented to their inner world. Weakened by illness or age. Lack of confidence in yourself and your abilities. Passive. Depressive. Contemplative. Self-sufficient. Independent.
Forms of interaction with other people: going to work, seclusion, hermitage.
parity relationships. They are chosen by harmoniously oriented persons who do not seek to use other people as a means to achieve their goals, but they themselves also do not become a follower.
Creative, with an adequate self-concept.
Forms of interaction with other people: cooperation, partnership, cooperation.
Each person in various life situations resorts to different strategies for interacting with other people, since he performs a large number of social roles, but along with this there is a preferred strategy that best suits his personality.
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