home Zoology Strength balance mobility of the nervous system. Behavioral reactions of the body: properties of nervous processes that determine the individual characteristics of behavior. Psychophysiological features and choice of profession

Strength balance mobility of the nervous system. Behavioral reactions of the body: properties of nervous processes that determine the individual characteristics of behavior. Psychophysiological features and choice of profession

Higher nervous activity is a set of unconditional and conditioned reflexes, as well as higher mental functions that provide adequate behavior in changing natural and social conditions. For the first time, the assumption about the reflex nature of the activity of the higher parts of the brain was made by I.M. Sechenov, which made it possible to extend the reflex principle to human mental activity. The ideas of I.M. Sechenov received experimental confirmation in the works of I.P. Pavlov, who developed a method for objective assessment of the functions of the higher parts of the brain - the method of conditioned reflexes.

IP Pavlov showed that all reflex reactions can be divided into two groups: unconditioned and conditional.

CLASSIFICATION OF TYPES OF HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY.

Unconditioned reflexes : 1. Congenital, hereditary reactions, most of them begin to function immediately after birth. 2. They are specific, i.e. common to all members of this species. 3. Permanent and persist throughout life. 4. Carried out at the expense of the lower parts of the central nervous system (subcortical nuclei, brain stem, spinal cord). 5. Occur in response to adequate stimuli acting on a specific receptive field.

Conditioned reflexes: 1. Reactions acquired in the process of individual life. 2. Customized. 3. Fickle - can appear and disappear. 4. Are predominantly a function of the cortex hemispheres. 5. Arise on any stimuli acting on different receptive fields.

Unconditioned reflexes can be simple or complex. Complex innate unconditioned reflex reactions are called instincts. Their characteristic feature is the chain nature of reactions.

According to the teachings of I. P. Pavlov, the individual characteristics of behavior, the dynamics of the course of mental activity depend on individual differences in activity nervous system. The basis of individual differences in nervous activity is the manifestation and correlation of properties, two main nervous processes- excitation and inhibition.

Three properties of excitation and inhibition processes have been established:

1) the strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition,

2) the balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition,

3) mobility (changeability) of the processes of excitation and inhibition.

Based on these main features, I.P. Pavlov, as a result of his research using the method of conditioned reflexes, came to the definition of four main types of the nervous system.

Combinations of these properties of the nervous processes of excitation and inhibition formed the basis for determining the type of higher nervous activity. Depending on the combination of strength, mobility and balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition, there are four main types of higher nervous activity. The classification of types of higher nervous activity is shown in Figure 1.

Weak type. Representatives of the weak type of the nervous system cannot withstand strong, prolonged and concentrated stimuli, because. they have weak processes of inhibition and excitation. Under the action of strong stimuli, the development of conditioned reflexes is delayed. Along with this, there is a high sensitivity (i.e., a low threshold) to the actions of stimuli.

Strong unbalanced type. Distinguished by a strong nervous system, it is characterized by an imbalance in the basic nervous processes - the predominance of excitation processes over inhibition processes.

Strong balanced movable type. The processes of inhibition and excitation are strong and balanced, but their speed, mobility, and rapid change of nervous processes lead to a relative instability of the nervous connections.

Strong balanced inert type. Strong and balanced nervous processes are characterized by low mobility. Representatives of this type are outwardly always calm, even, difficult to excite.

The type of higher nervous activity refers to natural higher data, this is an innate property of the nervous system, since the property of nervous processes is encoded in the gene of a typical human apparatus and therefore is inherited - transmitted from parents to descendants. On this physiological basis, various systems of conditional connections can be formed, i.e., in the process of life, these conditional connections will form differently in different people, influencing the individual nature of behavior and activity. This will manifest the type of higher nervous activity.

The type of HNA (higher nervous activity) is the physiological foundation for the formation of temperament, which demonstrates the manifestation of the type of higher nervous activity in human activity and behavior.

Rice. 2. Scheme of GND types according to I.V. Pavlov.

Types of higher nervous activity and their relationship with temperament.

I.P. Pavlov suggested distinguishing human types of higher nervous activity based on the degree of development of the first and second signal systems. He singled out:

1. artistic type, which is characterized by concrete thinking, the predominance of the first signal system, that is, sensory perception of reality. This type includes people with well-developed sensory perception, pronounced affects on everything that happens. They are prone to professions of a sensual-emotional circle. This type is often noted among actors, artists, musicians. In a neurotic breakdown, people of the artistic type tend to give reactions of a hysterical circle.

2. thinking type when a distraction from reality, abstract thinking is well expressed. This type includes individuals with well-developed abstract thinking and abstract concepts. They tend to study mathematics, theoretical sciences. With a neurotic breakdown, they are prone to a psychasthenic type of reaction.

3. Medium type when there is no predominance of one or another way of thinking. Pavlov believed that extreme types are rare, and most people belong to the average type, that is, this classification also does not reflect the whole variety of forms of human GNI.

Many scientists note that the significance of I.P. Pavlov’s work on the problem of temperaments lies primarily in clarifying the role of the properties of the nervous system as the primary and deepest parameters of the individual’s psychological organization.

Types of temperaments according to Hippocrates:

melancholic- a person with a weak nervous system, who is hypersensitive even to weak stimuli, and a strong stimulus can already cause a “breakdown”, “stopper”, confusion, “rabbit stress”, therefore, in stressful situations (exam, competition, danger, etc.) .) the results of the melancholic's activities may worsen in comparison with a calm, familiar situation. Hypersensitivity leads to rapid fatigue and a drop in performance (longer rest is required). An insignificant occasion can cause resentment, tears. The mood is very changeable, but usually the melancholic tries to hide, not to show his feelings outwardly, does not talk about his experiences, although he is very inclined to give himself up to experiences, often sad, depressed, unsure of himself, anxious, he may develop neurotic disorders. However, having a high sensitivity of the nervous system, they often have pronounced artistic and intellectual abilities.

sanguine- a person with a strong, balanced, mobile nervous system, has a fast reaction rate, his actions are deliberate, he is cheerful, due to which he is characterized by high resistance to the difficulties of life. The mobility of his nervous system determines the variability of feelings, attachments, interests, views, high adaptability to new conditions. This is a sociable person, easily converges with new people and therefore he has a wide circle of acquaintances, although he does not differ in constancy in communication and affection. He is a productive figure, but only when there are many interesting things to do, that is, with constant excitement, otherwise he becomes boring, lethargic, distracted. AT stressful situation shows a "lion's reaction", i.e. actively, deliberately defends himself, fights for the normalization of the situation.

Phlegmatic person- a person with a strong, balanced, but inert nervous system, as a result of which he reacts slowly, is taciturn, emotions appear slowly (it is difficult to anger, cheer); has a high capacity for work, well resists strong and prolonged stimuli, difficulties, but is not able to quickly respond to unexpected new situations. He firmly remembers everything he has learned, is not able to abandon the developed skills and stereotypes, does not like to change habits, life routines, work, friends, it is difficult and slow to adapt to new conditions. The mood is stable, even. In case of serious troubles, the phlegmatic person remains outwardly calm.

Choleric- this is a person whose nervous system is determined by the predominance of excitation over inhibition, as a result of which he reacts very quickly, often thoughtlessly, does not have time to slow down, restrain himself, shows impatience, impulsiveness, sharpness of movements, irascibility, unbridledness, incontinence. The imbalance of his nervous system predetermines the cyclicity in the change of his activity and vigor: carried away by some business, he passionately works with full dedication, but he does not have enough strength for long, and as soon as they are exhausted, he is being worked out to the point that everything is unbearable for him. There is an irritated state, a bad mood, a breakdown and lethargy (“everything falls out of hand”). The alternation of positive cycles of raising mood and energy with negative cycles of decline, depression causes uneven behavior and well-being, its increased susceptibility to the emergence of neurotic breakdowns and conflicts with people.

Each of the presented types of temperament in itself is neither good nor bad (if you do not connect temperament and character). Manifested in the dynamic features of the psyche and human behavior, each type of temperament can have advantages and disadvantages. People of sanguine temperament have a quick reaction, easily and quickly adapt to changing conditions of life, have increased efficiency, especially in the initial period of work, but at the end they reduce efficiency due to rapid fatigue and a drop in interest. On the contrary, those who are characterized by a temperament of the melancholic type are distinguished by a slow entry into work, but also a greater endurance. Their performance is usually higher in the middle or towards the end of work, and not at the beginning. In general, the productivity and quality of work for sanguine and melancholic people are approximately the same, and the differences mainly relate only to the dynamics of work in its different periods.

The choleric temperament has the merit of concentrating considerable efforts in a short space of time. But during long-term work, a person with such a temperament does not always have enough endurance. Phlegmatic people, on the contrary, are not able to quickly assemble and concentrate their efforts, but instead they have the valuable ability to work long and hard to achieve their goal. The type of human temperament must be taken into account where the work makes special demands on the specified dynamic features of the activity.

Hippocrates' classification of temperaments refers to humoral theories. Later, this line was proposed by the German philosopher I. Kant, who also considered the characteristics of blood to be the natural basis of temperament.

Features of a person's mental activity, which determine his actions, behavior, habits, interests, knowledge, are formed in the process of a person's individual life, in the process of education. The type of higher nervous activity gives originality to human behavior, leaves a characteristic imprint on the whole appearance of a person, i.e. determines the mobility of his mental processes, their stability, but does not determine in general the behavior, actions of a person, his beliefs, moral principles, since they form in the process of ontogenesis (individual development) on the basis of consciousness.

PROPERTIES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

The properties of nervous processes underlying the types of GNI determine the properties of the nervous system. These are such stable qualities that are innate. These properties include:

1. The strength of the nervous system in relation to excitation, i.e. its ability to withstand intense and often repetitive loads for a long time without revealing prohibitive braking.

2. The strength of the nervous system in relation to inhibition, i.e. the ability to withstand prolonged and frequently repeated braking effects.

3. The balance of the nervous system in relation to excitation and inhibition, which manifests itself in the same reactivity of the nervous system in response to excitatory and inhibitory influences.

4. Lability (mobility) of the nervous system, assessed by the rate of occurrence and termination of the nervous process of excitation or inhibition.

Weakness of nervous processes is characterized by the inability of nerve cells to withstand prolonged and concentrated excitation and inhibition. Under the action of very strong stimuli, nerve cells quickly pass into a state of protective inhibition. Thus, in a weak nervous system, nerve cells are characterized by low efficiency, their energy is quickly depleted. But on the other hand, a weak nervous system has great sensitivity: even to weak stimuli, it gives an appropriate reaction.

At present, a 12-dimensional classification of the properties of the human nervous system has developed in differential psychology (V.D. Nebylitsyn). It includes 8 primary properties (strength, mobility, dynamism and lability in relation to excitation and inhibition) and four secondary properties (balance in these main properties). It is shown that these properties can apply to the entire nervous system (its general properties) and to individual analyzers (partial properties).

Classification of the properties of the nervous system according to V.D. Nebylitsyn:

The strength of the nervous system is understood as endurance, performance of nerve cells, resistance either to a long-term action of an irritant that gives a concentrated excitation concentrated in the same nerve centers and accumulating in them, or to a short-term action of superstrong stimuli. The weaker the nervous system, the earlier the nerve centers pass into a state of fatigue and protective inhibition;

The dynamism of the nervous system is the rate of formation of conditioned reflexes or the ability of the nervous system to learn in the broad sense of the word. The main content of dynamism is the ease and speed with which nervous processes are generated in the brain structures during the formation of excitatory and inhibitory conditioned reflexes;

Lability, a property of the nervous system associated with the rate of occurrence, course and termination of the nervous process;

The mobility of the nervous system, the speed of movement, the spread of nervous processes, their irradiation and concentration, as well as mutual transformation.

1. General, or systemic, properties that cover the entire human brain and characterize the dynamics of its work as a whole.

2. Complex properties, manifested in the features of the work of individual "blocks" of the brain (hemispheres, frontal lobes, analyzers, anatomically and functionally separated subcortical structures, etc.).

3. The simplest, or elementary, properties correlated with the work of individual neurons.

As B.M. Teplev, the properties of the nervous system "form the soil on which some forms of behavior are easier to form, others are more difficult" .

For example, monotonous work shows the best results for people with a weak type of nervous system, and when moving to work associated with large and unexpected loads, on the contrary, people with a strong nervous system.

The complex of individual-typological properties of the nervous system that a person has, first of all, determines the temperament, on which the individual style of activity further depends.

In fact, the dependence of the course of mental processes and human behavior on the functioning of the nervous system, which performs a dominant and controlling role in the body, has long been known. The theory of the connection of some general properties of nervous processes with types of temperament was proposed by I.P. Pavlov and was developed and experimentally confirmed in the works of his followers.

THE TEACHING OF I.P. PAVLOV ABOUT TEMPERAMENT

I.P. Pavlov. studying the features of the development of conditioned reflexes in dogs, he drew attention to individual differences in their behavior and in the course of conditioned reflex activity. These differences manifested themselves primarily in such aspects of behavior as the speed and accuracy of the formation of conditioned reflexes, as well as in the features of their attenuation. This circumstance made it possible for I.P. Pavlov to put forward a hypothesis that they cannot be explained only by a variety of experimental situations and that they are based on some fundamental properties of nervous processes - excitation and inhibition. These properties include the strength of excitation and inhibition, their balance and mobility.

IP Pavlov distinguished between the power of imagination and the power of inhibition, considering them two independent properties of the nervous system.

Power of arousal reflects the performance of the nerve cell. It manifests itself in functional endurance, i.e. in the ability to withstand prolonged or short-term, but strong excitation, without passing into the opposite state of inhibition.

Braking force is understood as the functional performance of the nervous system during the implementation of inhibition and is manifested in the ability to form various inhibitory conditioned reactions, such as extinction and differentiation.

Equilibrium- balance of processes of excitation and inhibition. The ratio of the strength of both processes decides whether a given individual is balanced or unbalanced when the strength of one process exceeds that of the other.

Mobility- nervous processes - manifested in the speed of transition of one nervous process to another. The mobility of nervous processes is manifested in the ability to change behavior in accordance with changing living conditions. The measure of this property of the nervous system is the speed of transition from one action to another, from a passive state to an active state, and vice versa.

inertia- the opposite of mobility. The nervous system becomes more inert the more time or effort it takes to move from one process to another.

The properties of nervous processes identified by I.P. Pavlov form certain systems, combinations which, in his opinion, form the so-called type nervous system, or type of higher nervous activity. It consists of a set of basic properties of the nervous system characteristic of individual individuals - strength, balance and mobility of processes, distinguishing between strong and weak types. A further basis for division is the balance of nervous processes, but only for strong types, which are divided into balanced and unbalanced, while the unbalanced type is characterized by a predominance of excitation over inhibition. Strong balanced types are divided into mobile and inert, when the division is based on the mobility of nervous processes.

The types of the nervous system identified by I.P. Pavlov, not only in quantity, but also in basic characteristics, correspond to 4 classical types of temperament:

1. strong, balanced, mobile - sanguine;

2. strong, balanced, inert - phlegmatic;

3. strong, unbalanced type with a predominance of excitation - choleric;

4. weak type - melancholic.

I.P. Pavlov understood the type of the nervous system as innate, relatively weakly subject to changes under the influence of the environment and upbringing. According to I.P. Pavlov. properties of the nervous system form the physiological basis of temperament, which is a mental manifestation of the type of nervous system. Types of the nervous system, established in animal studies, Pavlov proposed to extend to humans.

At present, science has accumulated a lot of facts about the properties of the nervous system, and as they accumulate, researchers attach less and less importance to the types of the nervous system, especially the magic number (4), which appears in almost all the works of I.P. Pavlov on temperament. First of all, the importance of studying individual fundamental properties of the nervous system is emphasized, while the problem of division into types recedes into the background. Since types are formed from combinations of these properties, only a deeper knowledge of the latter can ensure the understanding and implementation of typologies.

However, undoubtedly. that each person has a very specific type of nervous system, the manifestation of which, i.e. features of temperament, constitute an important aspect of individual psychological differences.

TYPES OF TEMPERAMENTS AND THEIR PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Temperament should be understood as individually unique properties of the psyche that determine the dynamics of a person’s mental activity, which are equally manifested in a variety of activities, regardless of its content, goals, motives, remain constant in adulthood and, in their mutual connection, characterize the type of temperament. Specific manifestations of the type of temperament are diverse. They are not only noticeable in the external manner of behavior, but seem to permeate all aspects of the psyche, significantly manifesting themselves in cognitive activity, the sphere of feelings, motivation and actions of a person, as well as in the nature of mental work, speech features, etc.

At present, science has enough facts to give a complete psychological description of all types of temperament according to a certain harmonious program. However, in order to compile psychological characteristics Traditional 4 types usually distinguish the following main properties of temperament:

sensitivity is determined by what is the smallest force of external influences necessary for the occurrence of any mental reaction of a person, and what is the rate of occurrence of this reaction.

Reactivity characterized by the degree of involuntary reactions to external or internal influences of the same strength (a critical remark, an offensive word, a sharp tone - even a sound).

Activity testifies to how intensely (energetically a person influences the outside world and overcomes obstacles in achieving goals (persistence, focus, concentration).

The ratio of reactivity and activity determines what a person’s activity is more envious of: from random external or internal circumstances, moods, random events) or from goals, intentions, beliefs.

Plasticity and rigidity indicate how easily and flexibly a person adapts to external influences (plasticity) or how inert and inert his behavior is.

extraversion, introversion determines what the reactions and activities of a person mainly depend on - from external impressions that arise at the moment (extrovert), or from images, ideas and thoughts related to the past and future (introvert).

The ability to change behavior in accordance with changing living conditions. The measure of this property of the nervous system is the speed of transition from one action to another, from a passive state to an active one, and vice versa, the opposite of mobility is the inertness of nervous processes.

According to the teachings of IP Pavlov, the individual characteristics of behavior, the dynamics of the course of mental activity depend on individual differences in the activity of the nervous system. The basis of individual differences in nervous activity is the manifestation and correlation of the properties of the two main nervous processes - excitation and inhibition.

Three properties of excitation and inhibition processes were established:

1) the strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition,

2) the balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition,

3) mobility (changeability) of the processes of excitation and inhibition.

The strength of nervous processes is expressed in the ability of nerve cells to endure prolonged or short-term, but very concentrated excitation and inhibition. This determines the performance (endurance) of the nerve cell.

An important property of higher nervous activity is the balance of nervous processes, that is, the proportional ratio of excitation and inhibition. In some people, these two processes are mutually balanced, while in others this balance is not observed: either the process of inhibition or excitation predominates.

One of the main properties of higher nervous activity is the mobility of nervous processes. The mobility of the nervous system is characterized by the rapidity of the processes of excitation and inhibition, the rapidity of their onset and termination (when life conditions require it), the speed of movement of nervous processes (irradiation and concentration), the rapidity of the appearance of the nervous process in response to irritation, the rapidity of the formation of new conditioned connections, the development of and dynamic stereotype changes.

Combinations of these properties of the nervous processes of excitation and inhibition formed the basis for determining the type of higher nervous activity. Depending on the combination of strength, mobility and balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition, four main types of higher nervous activity are distinguished.

Weak type. Representatives of the weak type of the nervous system cannot withstand strong, prolonged and concentrated stimuli. Weak are the processes of inhibition and excitation. Under the action of strong stimuli, the development of conditioned reflexes is delayed. Along with this, there is a high sensitivity (i.e., a low threshold) to the actions of stimuli.

Strong balanced type. Distinguished by a strong nervous system, it is characterized by an imbalance in the basic nervous processes - the predominance of excitation processes over inhibition processes.

Strong balanced mobile type. The processes of inhibition and excitation are strong and balanced, but their speed, mobility, and rapid change of nervous processes lead to a relative instability of the nervous connections.

Strong balanced inert type. Strong and balanced nervous processes are characterized by low mobility. Representatives of this type are outwardly always calm, even, difficult to excite.

The type of higher nervous activity refers to natural higher data; this is an innate property of the nervous system. On this physiological basis, various systems of conditioned connections can be formed, i.e., in the process of life, these conditioned connections will form differently in different people: this is where the type of higher nervous activity will manifest itself. Temperament is a manifestation of the type of higher nervous activity in human activity and behavior.

Features of a person's mental activity, which determine his actions, behavior, habits, interests, knowledge, are formed in the process of a person's individual life, in the process of education. The type of higher nervous activity gives originality to human behavior, leaves a characteristic imprint on the whole appearance of a person - determines the mobility of his mental processes, their stability, but does not determine either the behavior, or actions of a person, or his beliefs, or moral principles.

Choleric- the personality is unbalanced, unrestrained, quick-tempered, even unbridled. Choleric temperament is characterized by great intensity and vivid expression of emotional experiences and the speed of their flow. The choleric is characterized by irascibility and quickness, which immediately follows violent outbursts of feelings. A choleric person is a hot, passionate person, characterized by a sharp change in feelings, which are always deep in him, capture him entirely. He deeply and strongly experiences both joys and sorrows, which finds its (sometimes violent) expression in his facial expressions and actions. With difficulty performs monotonous work, reactions are fast, strong. He gets down to business with ardor, but quickly cools down - a "disregard" mood appears.

In communication, impatient and harsh. Facial expressions and movements are energetic, the pace of work is fast. Often teenagers with such temperament disrupt lessons, get into fights, generally cause a lot of trouble to parents and teachers. These are fervent, fighting, active guys. They become ringleaders among their peers, involving them in various romantic ventures.

melancholic- unbalanced, deeply experiencing any event with a sluggish and weak external response. The reaction is slow. Features of the melancholic temperament are manifested externally: facial expressions and movements are slow, monotonous, restrained, poor, the voice is quiet, inexpressive.

Sensitive, vulnerable, afraid of difficulties, characterized by increased anxiety. Avoids unexpected situations. Prefers to perform actions that do not require mental stress.

The feelings and moods of the melancholic are monotonous and at the same time very stable.

Melancholic children cannot resist injustice, often fall under the influence of others, they are teased, offended. It is often difficult for these guys in a team. Melancholic teens are often timid and shy, and may burst into tears easily.

sanguine- the person is balanced, his reactions differ in speed and moderate strength, however, he is distinguished by a relatively weak intensity of mental processes and a quick change of some mental processes by others. He quickly learns new professional knowledge, can work for a long time without getting tired, provided that the work is varied. The sanguine person is characterized by the ease and speed of the emergence of new emotional states, which, however, quickly replacing each other, do not leave a deep trace in his mind.

Usually a sanguine person is distinguished by rich facial expressions, his emotional experiences are accompanied by a variety of expressive movements. This is a cheerful person, characterized by great mobility. The speed of mental processes is associated with external mobility in a sanguine person: he is impressionable, quickly responds to external stimuli and is less focused and deepened in his personal experiences.

Sanguine easily copes with tasks that require quick wits, unless these tasks are particularly difficult and serious. He easily takes on different cases, but at the same time he easily forgets about them, becoming interested in new ones.

Phlegmatic

Outwardly, a person of a phlegmatic temperament is distinguished, first of all, by low mobility, his movements are very slow and even lethargic, not energetic, one cannot expect quick actions from him. Phlegmatic is also characterized by weak emotional excitability. His feelings and moods are distinguished by an even character and change slowly. This is a calm, measured person in his actions. He rarely comes out of an even, calm emotional state, he can rarely be seen very agitated, affective manifestations of personality are alien to him.

Facial expressions and gestures of the phlegmatic are monotonous, inexpressive, speech is slow, devoid of liveliness, not accompanied by expressive movements.

Scholars give different definitions to the terms "extrovert" and "introvert". For the classification of K. Leonhard, the priority was human attitude to information, to the reaction to the events of the external environment: extroverts are susceptible to such information, react to it; introverts, on the other hand, can ignore the external environment to a greater extent, focusing on their own inner world.

Due to differences in approach, K. Leonhard makes the main conclusion that introvert - personality is more strong-willed, strong, resistant to influence from outside.extroverts in this regard, they are less resistant - they easily influenced by others and, unlike introverts, they can change their internal attitudes depending on the external environment.

Circle of friends introverts rather narrow, they are prone to philosophizing, introspection. Some of them oppose environment, and therefore do not follow the changing circumstances at all, lagging behind the pace of life. As a rule, introverts categorically do not tolerate interference in their lives, in their attitudes and in their inner world. Such individuals are used to following their principles and beliefs to the end. extroverts they adapt better to changing conditions, make acquaintances more easily and expand their social circle, are open to new things, including new information. They are ready to sacrifice their beliefs for the sake of a certain goal, easily yield to other people. Not prone to introspection, some extroverts can even be reproached for frivolity.

Mental self-regulation - This control of one's psycho-emotional state, achieved by a person's influence on himself with the help of words, mental images, control of muscle tone and breathing.

Character- this is the framework of the personality, which includes only the most pronounced and closely interconnected personality traits, clearly manifested in various types of activity. All character traits are personality traits, but not all personality traits are character traits. Character- an individual combination of the most stable, essential personality traits, manifested in human behavior, in a certain relation: 1) to yourself(degree of exactingness, criticality, self-assessment); 2) to other people(individualism or collectivism, selfishness or altruism, cruelty or kindness, indifference or sensitivity, rudeness or politeness, deceit or truthfulness, etc.); 3) to assigned work(laziness or hard work, accuracy or carelessness, initiative or passivity, perseverance or impatience, responsibility or irresponsibility, organization, etc.); 4) are reflected in the character volitional qualities : willingness to overcome obstacles, mental and physical pain, the degree of perseverance, independence, determination, discipline. Character of a person is an alloy of innate properties of higher nervous activity with individual traits acquired during life. Separate properties of character depend on each other, are connected with each other and form an integral organization, which is called character structure. There are two groups of traits in the character structure. Under character trait understand certain features of a person’s personality that systematically manifest themselves in various types of his activities and by which one can judge his possible actions under certain conditions. To first group include features that express the orientation of the personality (sustainable needs, attitudes, interests, inclinations, ideals, goals), a system of relations to the surrounding reality and are individually peculiar ways of implementing these relations. To the second group include intellectual, volitional and emotional character traits.

Accentuation of character and personality- this is an excessive expression of individual character traits, this is an extreme version of the norm bordering on psychopathy.

Character accents: 1. Hyperthymic type. He is distinguished by an elevated mood, optimistic, extremely contactable, quickly switches from one thing to another. Does not complete the work begun, not disciplined, prone to immoral acts, optional, self-esteem is overestimated. Conflict, often acts as the initiator of conflicts. 2.Disty type - opposite to the hyperthymic type. He is distinguished by a pessimistic mood, non-contact, prefers loneliness, leads a secluded life, is prone to low self-esteem. Rarely comes into conflict with others. Highly appreciates friendship, justice. 3.Cycloid type . It is characterized by fairly frequent periodic mood swings. During the period of mood rise, the behavior is hyperthymic, and during the recession, it is distimic. Self-esteem is unstable. Conflict, especially during the period of raising the mood. In conflict, unpredictable. 4. excitable type . Differs in low contact in communication. Boring, gloomy, prone to rudeness and abuse. Unaccommodating in a team, domineering in a family. In an emotionally calm state, conscientious, accurate. In a state of emotional arousal, he is quick-tempered, has poor control over his behavior. Conflict, often acts as the initiator of conflicts, is active in the conflict. 5. stuck type . It is distinguished by moderate sociability, boring, prone to moralizing, often takes the position of a "parent". Strives for high performance in any business, makes high demands on himself, is sensitive to social justice. Touchy, vulnerable, suspicious, vengeful, jealous. Self-esteem is inadequate. Conflict, usually acts as the initiator of conflicts, is active in the conflict. 6. Pedantic type . Distinguished by conscientiousness, accuracy, seriousness in business. In official relations - a bureaucrat, a formalist, easily concedes leadership to others. Rarely enters into conflicts. However, its formalism can provoke conflict situations. In conflict, he behaves passively. 7. Alarm type. Differs in low contact, self-doubt, minor mood. Self-esteem is low. At the same time, he is characterized by such features as friendliness, self-criticism, diligence. Rarely enters into conflicts, playing a passive role in them, the prevailing strategies of behavior in a conflict are withdrawal and concession. 8. Emotive type. Differs in the desire to communicate in a narrow circle. Establishes good contacts only with a small select circle of people. Overly sensitive. Tearful. At the same time, he is characterized by kindness, compassion, a heightened sense of duty, diligence. Rarely comes into conflict. In conflicts, he plays a passive role, is prone to concessions. 9. Demonstrative type. It is distinguished by the ease of establishing contacts, the desire for leadership, the thirst for power and glory. Prone to intrigue. Attractive, artistic. At the same time, people of this type are selfish, hypocritical, boastful. Conflict. active in conflict. 10. Exalted type ( from lat. exaltatio - enthusiastic, excited state, painful animation). Differs in high contact. Loquacious, loving. Attached and attentive to friends and relatives, subject to momentary moods. Sincerely experience other people's problems.

Mechanisms of development and formation of character

Character usually means the totality of some outstanding mental properties of an individual. This refers to those mental properties that are formed after the birth of a person. Temperament, for example, has physiological and genetic roots, therefore, it does not apply to character, because it was formed in many respects even before birth. He, in turn, can either promote or hinder the development of certain character traits.

Character is formed in the process of personality development, its social relations.

Character traits are formed at three levels:

physiological - based on temperament,

social - under the influence of society

at the level of consciousness - self-formation of character.

The main condition for the development and formation of a person's character is, of course, the social environment. In simple words, all those people who surround a person in the process of growing up and not only. There is no need to talk about the clear boundaries of this process, because the character is "filled" with various features throughout life.

It should be noted that the formation of a person's character is characterized by a number of certain conditions and features at different age stages.

Periods of character formation

Although the character begins to form from the first months, nevertheless, a special Sensitive period of life is distinguished. This period falls approximately at the age of 2-3 to 9-10 years, when children communicate a lot and actively both with surrounding adults and with peers, they are readily accepted, imitating everyone and everything. During this period, they are open to almost any outside influence. Children readily accept any new experience, imitating everything and everything. Adults at this time still enjoy the boundless trust of the child, so they have the opportunity to influence him with a word, deed and action.

For the formation of the character of the child, the style of communication of the surrounding people is important:

Adults with adults

Adults with children

Children with children.

The style of communication of adults with each other in front of the child, the way of communication with him himself are very important for the formation of character.

The child both adopts the style of communication and tries to adapt to it, which in turn also affects the formation of character. It is generally accepted that the way mother and father act in relation to the child, after many years, becomes the way he treats his children, when the child becomes an adult and acquires his own family. However, this is both true and not true. The child does not just adopt communication styles, he criticizes them in his own way. How older child and the more developed his intellect and the more willingly he uses the possibilities of his mind, the more critical he is. That is why the core of character always includes a person's attitude to the truth. The inquisitiveness of the child's mind cannot but leave an imprint on the formation of his character.

Some of the first traits in a person's character are:

kindness-selfishness,

sociability, isolation,

Responsiveness is indifference.

Studies show that these character traits begin to form long before the beginning of the school period of life, even as early as infancy.

Later, other character traits are formed:

industriousness, laziness

Neatness, inaccuracy

Good faith-malice,

Responsibility, irresponsibility

Persistence is cowardice.

These qualities, however, also begin to form in preschool childhood. They are formed and fixed in games and available types of domestic work and other household activities.

Great importance the development of character traits is stimulated by adults. Both low demands and very high demands can adversely affect the formation of character.

In the preschool period, mainly those traits that constantly receive support are preserved and consolidated.

In the elementary grades of the school, character traits are formed that manifest themselves in relationships with people. This is facilitated by the expansion of the sphere of communication of the child with others due to the many new school friends, adult teachers. If what a child as a person has acquired at home receives support at school, then the corresponding character traits are fixed in him and most often remain throughout his later life. If the newly gained experience of communicating with peers, teachers, and other adults does not confirm as correct those characteristic forms of behavior that the child acquired at home, then a gradual breakdown of character begins, which is usually accompanied by pronounced internal and external conflicts. The resulting restructuring of character does not always lead to positive result. Most often, there is a partial change in character traits and a compromise between what the child was taught at home and what the school requires of him.

At school, the child begins to live a full social life, communicate with large quantity people, including few he knew. The responsibility of the child for the result of the activity increases. They start comparing him to other kids. Therefore, it is in primary school such an important character trait as self-attitude is formed. School success can build confidence in their own intellectual usefulness. Failures can form a kind of "loser complex": the child stops trying, because he is still a "loser".

In adolescence, strong-willed character traits actively develop. In early youth, the basic moral, ideological foundations of the personality are finally formed, which most people carry through the rest of their lives. By the end of school, the character finally develops. Further, the character is formed and transformed throughout life, but not so much that it becomes unrecognizable. Now a person becomes the creator of his character as a result of self-education.

Types of wrong upbringing and character types with pathologies

The social environment is, of course, a very important condition for the formation of character. But equally important is education. The role of upbringing in the formation of character cannot be ruled out, since improper upbringing can cause certain pathologies in the character. Education can be classified as purposeful or spontaneous.

According to the goals of education can be divided into three types:

education for the educator

education for society

education for the student.

Parenting for the educator is aimed at developing traits that facilitate parenting, such as obedience.

The task of education for society is the formation of socially significant features (for example, law-abiding); education for the educated person sets the task of forming such character traits that are beneficial for the person himself, capable of harmonizing his existence.

Capabilities- individual psychological characteristics of a person, manifested in activity and are a condition for its success. From the level of development abilities the speed, ease and strength of the process of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities depend, but they themselves capabilities are not limited to knowledge, skills and abilities.

Abilities are called general a person, which in one way or another are manifested in all types of his activity. These are learning abilities, general mental capacity man, his ability to work. They are based on the general skills required in each field of activity, in particular, such as the ability to understand tasks, plan and organize their execution using the means available in human experience, reveal the connections of those things to which the activity relates, master new methods of work, overcome difficulties on the way to the goal.

Under special understand ability, which are clearly manifested in separate, special areas of activity (for example, stage, musical, sports, etc.).

The division of general and special abilities is conditional. Actually, we are talking about general and special aspects in human abilities that exist in interconnection. General abilities are manifested in special, that is, in abilities for some specific, specific activity. With the development of special abilities, their general aspects also develop.

giftedness- the presence in a person of favorable inclinations and abilities for any one or several types of activity. About giftedness a person can be judged by the nature of the development of abilities and the acquisition of knowledge, skills, abilities, by success and the level of achievements in professional work.

At the heart of any ability lies inclinations. The inclinations are understood as primary, natural (biological) features with which a person is born and which mature in the process of his development. These are mainly congenital anatomical and physiological features of the structure of the body, the motor apparatus, sensory organs, the neurodynamic properties of the brain, the features of the functional asymmetry of the cerebral hemispheres, etc. It is the originality of individual characteristics that acts as natural inclinations. Inclinations do not contain abilities and do not guarantee their development. They may or may not turn into abilities, depending on the upbringing and activities of the person. In the absence of proper upbringing and activity, even great inclinations will not become abilities, and with appropriate upbringing and activity, even abilities of a sufficiently high level can develop from small inclinations.

BM Teplov points out some conditions for the formation of abilities. Abilities themselves cannot be innate. Only inclinations can be congenital. The makings of Teplov understood as some anatomical and physiological features. Inclinations underlie the development of abilities, and abilities are the result of development. If the ability itself is not innate, therefore, it is formed in postnatal ontogenesis (it is important to note that Teplov separates the terms "innate" and "hereditary"; "innate" - manifested from the moment of birth and formed under the influence of both hereditary and and environmental factors, "hereditary" - formed under the influence of heredity factors and manifested both immediately after birth and at any other time in a person's life). Abilities are formed in activity. Teplov writes that "... the ability cannot arise outside the corresponding specific objective activity" . Thus, ability refers to that which arises in the activity corresponding to it. It also affects the success of this activity. Ability begins to exist only together with activity. It cannot appear before the implementation of the activities corresponding to it has begun. Moreover, abilities are not only manifested in activities. They are created in it.

In psychology, there are three concepts of ability:

A) the theory of heredity of abilities,

B) the theory of acquired abilities,

C) acquired and natural in abilities.

1. The theory of heredity of abilities dates back to Plato, who argued that abilities are of biological origin, i.e. their manifestation depends entirely on who was the parent of the child, on what traits are inherited. Training and education can only change the speed of their appearance, but they will always manifest themselves in one way or another. www.pclever.ru

The approach to the hereditary nature of abilities is reflected in views that link a person's abilities with the size of his brain. But these studies have not been confirmed.

2. The theory of acquired abilities connects abilities exclusively with the environment and upbringing. Back in the 18th century K.A. Helvetius said that with the help of special education, genius can be formed. Supporters of this direction refer to cases when children from the most backward and primitive tribes, having received appropriate training, did not differ in any way from educated Europeans.

Cases are also cited as examples when, for some reason, a child is deprived of the opportunity to communicate with adults and peers. As a result, a person in the full sense of the word does not come out of him.

The American scientist W. Ashby argues that abilities and even genius are determined by acquired properties, and in particular by what pre-program and program of intellectual activity were formed in a person in childhood and in later life, spontaneously and consciously in the learning process. For one, the program allows you to solve creative problems, while for the other, only reproductive ones. W. Ashby considers working capacity to be the second factor of abilities.

However, this conception has also met with objections. Life observations and special studies show that the natural prerequisites for abilities cannot be denied. In a number of professions, they are of particular importance.

3. Acquired and natural in abilities. This concept, which combines the above theories, is confirmed by practice and special studies.

Researchers divide abilities into natural and acquired. The division is very conditional. Heredity is included, of course, as one of the conditions in the development of man, but his abilities are not a direct function of his heredity. First of all, the hereditary and acquired in the specific characteristics of the personality form an inseparable unity; already because of this, it is impossible to attribute any specific mental properties of a person to the expense of heredity alone.

Feel - this is the simplest mental cognitive process of reflecting the individual properties of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, as well as the internal states of the body, arising from their direct impact on the senses.

Types and classification of sensations. According to the five sense organs known to the ancient Greeks, the following types of sensations are distinguished: visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, tactile (tactile). In addition, there are intermediate sensations between tactile and auditory - vibration. There are also complex sensations, consisting of several independent analytical systems: for example, touch is tactile and muscular-articular sensations; skin sensations include tactile, temperature and pain. There are organic sensations (hunger, thirst, nausea, etc.), static sensations, sensations of balance, reflecting the position of the body in space.

There are various bases for classifying sensations.
The oldest classification of sensations includes five points (according to the number of sense organs):
- smell,
- taste,
- touch,
- vision
- hearing.
B.G. Ananiev singled out eleven types of sensations.
The English physiologist C. Sherrington proposed a systematic classification of sensations. At the first level, sensations are divided into three main types:
- interoceptive,
- proprioceptive
- exteroceptive.
Interoceptive combine signals that reach us from the internal environment of the body. Proprioceptive transmit information about the position in space of the body in general and the musculoskeletal system in particular. Exteroceptive provide signals from the outside world.

Interoceptive sensations

They signal the state of the internal processes of the body. They arise due to receptors located:
- on the walls of the stomach, intestines, heart, blood vessels and other organs,
- inside the muscles and other organs.
As it turned out, this is the oldest and most elementary group sensations. Receptors that receive state information internal organs are called intrinsic receptors. Interoceptive sensations are among the least conscious and most diffuse forms of sensation. They, characteristically, always retain their closeness to emotional states in consciousness.
Also interoceptive sensations are often called organic.

proprioceptive sensations

They transmit signals about the position of the body in space, thus forming the afferent basis of human movements, playing a decisive role in their regulation. Proprioceptive sensations include:
- a sense of balance (static sensation),
- motor (kinesthetic) sensation.
Proprioceptive sensitivity receptors are found in muscles and joints (tendons, ligaments). These receptors are called Paccini bodies.
The role of proprioceptors is well studied in physiology and psychophysiology. Their role as the afferent basis of movements in animals and humans was studied in detail in the works of A.A. Orbeli, P.K. Anokhin, N.A. Bernstein.
Peripheral balance receptors are located in the semicircular canals of the inner ear.

Exteroceptive sensations

They bring information from the outside world to the consciousness of a person. Exteroceptive sensations are divided into:
- contact (taste and touch),
- distant (hearing, sight and smell).
The sense of smell, according to many authors, occupies an intermediate position between contact and distant sensations. Formally, olfactory sensations occur at a distance from the object, but the smell itself is a kind of object (we can say that this is a cloud of gas). And then it turns out that the nose is in direct contact with this object. You can also notice that the object itself has already ceased to exist, but the smell from it remains (for example, a tree burned down, but the smoke from it remained). The sense of smell also plays a huge role in the perception of the quality of the food being eaten.

Intermodal Feelings

There are sensations that cannot be associated with any particular modality. Such sensations are called intermodal. These include vibrational sensitivity, in which tactile-motor and auditory sensations are integrated. L.E. Komendantov believes that tactile-vibrational sensitivity is one of the forms of sound perception. Tactile perception of sound vibration is understood as diffuse sound sensitivity. Vibrational sensitivity plays a huge role in the life of the deaf and deaf-blind-mute. deaf-blind thanks to high development vibration sensitivity, learned about the approach of a truck and other vehicles at a great distance.

This approach, not limited to fixing a statistical relationship between certain signs of body structure and psychological characteristics, seeks to reveal the physiological mechanisms that determine the properties of temperament. For this purpose, first of all, the specific structure and functioning of the nervous system is studied. Psychophysiological direction explaining the properties of temperament features of the functioning of the central nervous system and characterizing higher nervous activity, is represented by the studies of I. P. Pavlov, B. M. Teplov, V. D. Nebylitsyn, E. A. Golubeva, V. S. Merlin, P. V. Simonov and their collaborators.

Typology of higher nervous activity according to I. P. Pavlov

The first step in the search for links between the features of the nervous system and temperament was functional typology of higher nervous activity, developed by I. P. Pavlov (see also Ch. 3). AT scientific school Pavlov, the natural prerequisites for individual differences were studied by indirect (i.e. indirect) measurement of the properties of the nervous system using motor, secretory and sensory techniques. Recall that the subjects in Pavlov's laboratory were dogs. According to the nature of their reactions to unconditioned and conditioned stimuli, three basic properties of nervous processes were distinguished (Pavlov identified them with the general properties of the nervous system): "strength - weakness", "inertia – mobility", "poise - unbalance of the processes of excitation and inhibition". Accordingly, the imbalance (imbalance) of nervous processes was observed in two variants - with a predominance of the excitation process or with a predominance of the inhibition process.

Strong type of nervous system, according to Pavlov, manifested itself in high performance, endurance, resistance to interference, the ability to withstand prolonged stress against the background of high activity. Weak type of nervous system characterized by high fatigue, impressionability, low stamina, weak activity. The property of the mobility/inertia of the nervous system was determined by the rate of occurrence of the reaction, the rate of the course of nervous processes and the change in the processes of inhibition and excitation, the liveliness of response to an external stimulus ("resourcefulness"), the ability to adapt to new conditions and types of activity, the speed of motor acts. An unbalanced type of nervous system with a predominance of excitation characterized by restlessness, fussiness, lack of concentration, lack of concentration, stormy emotional reactions(emotional outbursts). Unbalanced type of nervous system with predominance of inhibition manifested in calmness, thoroughness, slowness, protracted nature of emotional experiences.

But how are the general properties of the nervous system related to human behavior in real life? life situations? What can we say about a person, having established, for example, that he has a strong unbalanced in the direction of excitation inert nervous system? How will he behave if, for example, he is pushed in a tram? First, it is very likely that he simply will not notice this occurrence, since his threshold of sensitivity is relatively high. Secondly, his reaction will be intense, but slow. Most likely, he will think about what happened even after his offender leaves the car. Let's not forget that temperament determines only the form of mental experiences and behavioral reactions, but not their content, so the specific actions of our hypothetical sufferer (whether he insults his fellow traveler or only screams loudly, whether he takes out his irritation on his family or tries to distract himself from gloomy thoughts) does not depend on the properties of temperament, but on personal factors.

As a result of the combination of the selected properties, it was hypothetically possible to describe 24 types of temperament. However, in the real behavior of animals, only four main types of temperament were clearly distinguished, close to those observed by Hippocrates (see Chapter 2). The combination of two properties of the nervous system - strength and imbalance with a predominance of excitation - corresponds to choleric temperament ("excitable unrestrained type"), a combination of three properties of the nervous system - sanguine (strong, balanced, mobile) and phlegmatic (strong, balanced, inert). Weak type of nervous system determines melancholic temperament (within the type of melancholic, differences in other properties of the nervous system are not obvious). In a comic form, the differences in the behavior of carriers of these types of temperaments who find themselves in a similar situation can be seen in Fig. 10.6.

Rice. 10.6.

Later, Pavlov supplemented his typology, pointing out the existence of properties inherent only to man - the predominance of the first signal system (concrete-figurative) or the second signal system (speech, abstract-generalized), and singled out "specially human" types - "artistic" and "mental" .

At the time when I. P. Pavlov conducted his experiments, there were no subtle methods for studying the activity of brain structures. Despite this, his ideas laid the foundations of the modern psychophysiological approach to the study of temperament. As the American researcher R.D. Douglas said about Pavlov’s work: “I.P. Pavlov was forced to decide on the likely site of excitation and inhibition and their mechanisms at a time when the main sciences of the brain were experiencing their own “ stone Age"... O physical nature no one had the slightest idea about braking."

The study of the typology of the properties of the nervous system in the school of B. M. Teplov - V. D. Nebylitsyna

In the second half of the XX century. the development of electrophysiological and neurophysiological methods made it possible to combine Pavlov's ideas with modern data on the functioning of the brain (see Chapter 3). The systematic application of EEG methods for studying the difference in the typological properties of the nervous system was carried out at the Teplov-Nebylitsyn school.

To conclude about the general properties of the nervous system, we used many indicators of the bioelectrical activity of the brain, according to which significant individual differences are found and which correlate with the observed dynamic features of behavior. Thus, recording the spontaneous rhythm of the human brain at rest (background activity in the absence of external stimulation) makes it possible to compare the activity of rhythms of different frequencies: theta-, delta-, alpha-, beta-1 and beta-2. The more rhythms of higher frequencies are represented in the background EEG, the higher the initial activity of brain structures differs. this person. The stability of the background EEG is an indication of the strength of the nervous system. The characteristics of the bioelectric response to the presentation of a new stimulus testify to the balance of nervous processes (the predominance of excitation or inhibition). Inertia is determined by the rate of occurrence and extinction of the EEG and GSR components of the orienting reflex, as well as the severity of frequency changes in the EEG. The tempo characteristics of the brain are diagnosed by the response time to the stimulus. To do this, the time between the presentation of a stimulus (auditory or visual) and the appearance of changes in the EEG (latent periods of evoked potentials) is measured. An important indicator of the inertia of nervous processes is a test (physiological test) for flicker fusion critical frequency (KChSM). If a luminous dot flashes on the screen in front of the subject, then by increasing the frequency of its flashing (reducing the interval between flashes), one can obtain the effect of perceiving the dot as constantly luminous. The more inert the nervous processes, the lower the frequency of blinking of the dot on the screen, this effect is achieved. A test for the imposition of rhythms of the brain is also used. The subject is presented with visual or auditory stimuli with a certain frequency, during the experiment the frequency changes. With the help of EEG, the reaction of assimilation of rhythms by brain structures is recorded. An indicator of the degree of dynamism of the nervous system is the value of the frequency of external influences, in response to which the maximum synchronization of brain rhythms is recorded. Individual samples were used to assess the sensitivity of the analyzers, and absolute and differential thresholds were measured (see subparagraph 7.1.2).

New technical possibilities for analyzing brain activity made it possible to clarify IP Pavlov's ideas about the presence of three main properties of the nervous system. The parameter "mobility - inertia" proposed by Pavlov in the school of Teplov - Nebylitsyn was divided into two different properties: mobility (the ability of the nervous processes of excitation and inhibition to replace each other - a classic "rework" of the skill) and lability (speed of occurrence and termination of nervous processes). In turn, the parameter "strength - weakness" turned out to be a derivative of the sensitivity of the analyzers (determined by the value of sensory thresholds) and endurance to loads (working capacity and development of fatigue).

Let us pay attention to the fact that all the tests performed by the subjects in this cycle of studies involved the analysis of the characteristics of the processing of sensory information (visual or auditory stimuli), which is carried out by the information block of the brain. At the same time, two other morphofunctional structures remained out of consideration - the energy and regulatory blocks of the brain (A. R. Luria, 1973) . The results of physiological tests showed the heterogeneity of the characteristics of the work of these brain structures. In this connection, a division was introduced between the particular (partial) properties of the nervous system, determined by the characteristics of the analyzer systems, and the general properties of the nervous system ("superanalyzer" characteristics). "These structures constitute the substratum of such global general physiological and general personal functions as motivation, needs and emotions, directed attention, programming of actions and movements, intellectual planning and evaluation of results, etc. It is quite natural to assume that the properties of these brain structures are the determinants of individual features of the psyche and therefore can rightfully be considered as general properties of the nervous system, "V. D. Nebylitsyn believed. The energy and regulatory blocks of the brain determine two general properties of the nervous system - activity (arousal) and emotionality (according to V.D. Nebylitsyn). General properties energy and regulatory blocks of the brain determine the specific values of the severity of the partial properties of the information block.

According to V. M. Rusalov, activity is manifested in such traits of temperament as endurance, pace and speed of actions performed. The indicator of emotionality is, first of all, the dominant emotions and their dynamic characteristics. At the physiological level, the state of the general activity of the brain is determined by the function of the reticular formation and the anterior sections of the neocortex (nonspecific activation). The state of activation is manifested in movements, the level of mental activity, functional states, attention. Emotionality depends on the relationship of the anterior cortex with the limbic system of the brain.

Measurement of the described properties using psychophysiological techniques makes it possible to draw up a profile of the severity of various properties of the nervous system of a particular person, which will reveal a connection with the intensity, pace and stability of the dynamics of his mental life.

Due to the complexity of using psychophysiological methods for diagnosing the natural basis of temperament, questionnaires aimed at assessing the properties of temperament, which, of course, have only probabilistically oriented value, since when answering questions, a person’s subjective opinion about formal-dynamic aspects is revealed, which can differ significantly from real indicators. Among the most famous are the "Questionnaire for assessing the structure of temperament" by V. M. Rusalov and the questionnaire "Formal characteristics of behavior" by J. Strelyau.

Thus, the use of objective physiological methods and / or appropriate questionnaires for determining the properties of temperament allows you to establish individual characteristics that are manifested in the formal-dynamic characteristics of the activity (external behavior and mental processes) of a person. Currently, as natural prerequisites for individuality, along with indicators of activation and emotionality, the problem of the possibility of self-regulation of temperamental properties is of increasing interest.

Character formation begins at an early age. Already in preschool age the first contours of character are outlined, a habitual way of behavior, certain attitudes towards reality begin to take shape. Manifestations of collectivism, perseverance, endurance, courage in preschool age are formed primarily in the game, especially in collective plot games with rules.

Of great importance are the simplest types of labor activity available to a preschooler. By performing some simple duties, the child learns to respect and love work, to feel responsibility for the task assigned. Under the influence of the requirements of parents and educators, their personal example, the child gradually develops concepts of what is possible and what is not, and this begins to determine his behavior, lays the foundations for a sense of duty, discipline, endurance; The child learns to evaluate his own behavior.

With admission to school, a new stage of character formation begins. For the first time, the child is faced with a series of strict rules and school duties that determine all his behavior at school, at home, in public places.

These rules and duties develop the student's organization, systematic, purposefulness, perseverance, accuracy, discipline, diligence. An exceptionally important role in the formation of character is played by the school team. At school, the child enters into new relationships with teachers, into relationships of community and mutual assistance with comrades. He develops a sense of duty and responsibility to the team of his class, school, a sense of camaraderie, collectivism. Especially intensively develop character traits in adolescents. A teenager, to a much greater extent than a younger schoolchild, participates in the life of adults, higher demands are placed on him. A teenager in his educational and social activities is already much more guided by the motives of public order - a sense of duty and responsibility to the team, the desire to maintain the honor of the school, class.

Upbringing has a decisive influence on the character of the child. There are no children whose character could not be re-educated and who could not be instilled with certain positive qualities, eliminating even the negative traits that seem to have already taken root in them.

What are the ways of developing character?

Necessary condition character education is the formation of worldviews, beliefs, and ideals. The worldview determines the orientation of a person, his life goals, aspirations, moral attitudes follow from the worldview, by which people are guided in their actions. The task of forming a worldview, beliefs should be solved in unity with the education of certain forms of behavior, in which the system of human relations to reality could be embodied. Therefore, in order to nurture socially valuable character traits, it is necessary to organize the child's play, educational, and labor activities in such a way that he can accumulate experience in correct behavior.

In the process of character formation, it is necessary to consolidate not only a certain form of behavior, but also the corresponding motive for this behavior, but also the corresponding motive for this behavior, to put children in such conditions that their practical activities correspond to their ideological education, so that they apply in practice the assimilated principles of behavior. If the conditions in which a child lived and acted did not require him, for example, to display restraint or initiative, then the corresponding character traits would not be developed in him, no matter how high moral ideas were instilled in him verbally. It is impossible to bring up a courageous person if you do not put him in such conditions when he could and should have shown courage. Education that eliminates all difficulties on life path baby, can never create strong character.

The most important means of educating character is work. In serious and socially significant work, connected with overcoming difficulties, the best character traits are brought up - purposefulness, collectivism, perseverance. The most important condition for the correct organization of educational activities is the close coordination of the educational work of the school with the corresponding influences of the family.

Literature and art influence the education of character. images literary heroes and their behavior often serve as a kind of model for the student, with which he compares his behavior.

The personal example of the educator, whether parents or teachers, also influences character education. What educators do often affects a child's life much more than what they tell him. How a teacher relates to work, how he follows social norms of behavior, whether he controls himself and his feelings, what is the style of his work - all this is of great importance for educating the character of children.

plays an important role in the formation of character living word teacher, educator, with whom he addresses the child. A significant place is occupied, in particular, by ethical or moral conversations. Their goal is to form the correct moral ideas and concepts in children. For older students, one of the ways of character formation is self-education. However, also junior schoolchildren the teacher must cultivate the desire to get rid of certain shortcomings, undesirable habits, to develop useful habits. The need for an individual approach in character education is especially important.

An individual approach requires the selection and implementation of such educational activities that would correspond to the characteristics of the student's personality and the state in which he is currently located.

It is absolutely necessary to take into account the motives of actions, since the differences in motives determine the differences in educational activities that must be carried out by the teacher in response to this or that student's act. An individual approach requires reliance on the positive that each child already has in the area of his interests, attitudes towards people, to certain types of activity, etc. By developing the already existing valuable features in every possible way, encouraging positive actions, the teacher can more easily overcome negative traits character in children.

In order to educate the character of the student, taking into account his individual characteristics, one should know them well, i.e., comprehensively and deeply study the individuality of the student. Studying a child is a relatively lengthy process. Only a good knowledge of the student will make it possible to outline individual measures for his further education or re-education and will lead to the desired results.

When meeting with students for the first time at the very beginning of the first year of study, the teacher should carefully observe them, talk with parents about the conditions and some features of the child's development, about the manifestations of his character. Based on observations and conversations, it is necessary to draw up a specific program for shaping the character of the child, taking into account his individual characteristics.

The physiological basis of temperament

Three properties of excitation and inhibition processes were established:
1) the strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition,
2) the balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition,
3) mobility (changeability) of the processes of excitation and inhibition.

One of the main properties of higher nervous activity is the mobility of nervous processes. The mobility of the nervous system is characterized by the rapidity of the processes of excitation and inhibition, the rapidity of their onset and termination (when life conditions require it), the speed of the movement of nervous processes (irradiation and concentration), the rapidity of the appearance of the nervous process in response to irritation, the rapidity of the formation of new conditioned connections, the development of and dynamic stereotype changes.

Combinations of these properties of the nervous processes of excitation and inhibition formed the basis for determining the type of higher nervous activity. Depending on the combination of strength, mobility and balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition, four main types of higher nervous activity are distinguished.

Strong balanced inert type. Strong and balanced nervous processes are characterized by low mobility. Representatives of this type are outwardly always calm, even, difficult to excite.

The type of higher nervous activity refers to natural higher data; this is an innate property of the nervous system. On a given physiological basis, various systems of conditioned connections can be formed, i.e., in the process of life, these conditioned connections will form differently in different people: this will be the manifestation of the type of higher nervous activity. Temperament is a manifestation of the type of higher nervous activity in human activity and behavior.

Features of a person's mental activity, which determine his actions, behavior, habits, interests, knowledge, are formed in the process of a person's individual life, in the process of education. The type of higher nervous activity gives originality to human behavior, leaves a characteristic imprint on the whole appearance of a person - determines the mobility of his mental processes, their stability, but does not determine either the behavior, or actions of a person, or his beliefs, or moral principles.