Three possible paths for Russia. The unification of Russia Was the unification of Russia inevitable 7

In the XIII-XV centuries. most of the lands of the former Kievan Rus were united under the rule of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (GDL). At one time, Lithuania was stronger than any Russian principality. At the beginning of the 15th century, under Prince Vitovt (1392-1430), Lithuania achieved such power that Moscow Grand Duke Vasily II the Dark (1425-1462), his grandson, was considered his vassal, and at one time a Lithuanian prince ruled Veliky Novgorod. It seemed that nothing could stop Lithuania from uniting all Russian lands, including North-Eastern, Suzdal Rus. But it happened differently. The reign of Vytautas was the peak of Lithuanian power. Already with him began its decline.

Grand Duchy of Lithuanian-Russian

The rise of Lithuania was facilitated by the Mongol invasion of Russia. Lithuania and many western Russian principalities turned out to be aloof from him and began to rally to repel the threat. Western Russian princes sometimes willingly became vassals of Lithuania, at other times Lithuania conquered principalities by force. But unification with Lithuania meant freedom from paying tribute to the Golden Horde.

Under the Grand Duke Gediminas (1316-1341), Lithuania included the entire current territory of Belarus. Polotsk and Turov-Pinsk principalities and part of the Volyn principality have long been located here. Under his son Olgerd (1345-1377), Lithuania spread to the Kiev, Volyn, Pereyaslav, Chernigov and Novgorod-Seversk principalities. In the east, its borders included the entire Central Russian Upland and the ancient lands of the Vyatichi. In the 70s of the XIV century, Lithuanian squads came to Moscow more than once. In the very late XIV and in the first years of the 15th century, under Vitovt, Lithuania annexed the Principality of Smolensk, in the south came to the Black Sea.

Lithuanian princes were pagans. At the same time, they have long been influenced by Russian culture, and some of them converted to Orthodoxy. The written language of the GDL was Old Russian. The Gediminovich dynasty gradually replaced almost all the princes from the Rurik dynasty in the subject principalities. But the Gediminoviches became Russified, they were called in the Russian manner with “-vich” - for example, Dmitry Olgerdovich - and often pursued a policy independent of the Grand Duke, especially on the outskirts of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The religious tolerance of the Lithuanian princes and the widespread dissemination of Russian culture contributed to the fact that the state itself increasingly became the successor to Kievan Rus in every sense.

Union with Catholic Poland

However, one circumstance seriously complicated the position of Lithuania. Settled in the XII-XIII centuries. in the Baltics, the German Teutonic Order led an offensive against Lithuania, forcibly converting the population to Catholicism, taking away lands for their knights and turning the Baltic inhabitants into serfs.

Poland, neighboring Lithuania, was also Catholic, but it also experienced the onslaught of the Germans, and besides, it did not encroach on Lithuanian territories. The common danger brought Lithuania closer to Poland. Only Poland at that time could help Lithuania in opposing the Teutonic Order. But the Polish aristocracy was ready to provide this assistance only if Lithuania converted to Catholicism.

The turning point came in 1385. At that time, Jagiello Olgerdovich reigned in Lithuania, who came to power as a result of an internecine war. Jagiello did not understand the means and was distinguished by extreme cruelty. It was no secret to anyone that he treacherously captured his uncle Keistut Gediminovich and then ordered him to be killed.

At the same time, the Polish throne was vacant. King Louis I of Luxembourg, who also held the throne of Hungary, died in 1382. Poland was formally ruled by him youngest daughter Jadwiga. The Polish nobility did not want unification with Hungary and prevented the accession to the throne of Louis' eldest daughter Maria. An amusing detail: Jadwiga was formally crowned as a man, with the title of king, not queen, since the basic laws of Poland forbade only a woman from occupying the throne.

At the same time, the Polish nobility came up with a plan for a dynastic union with Lithuania. They decided to marry the twelve-year-old Jadwiga to Jagiello, who was already over thirty years old. The only obstacle was mutual love Jadwiga and the fifteen-year-old Duke Wilhelm of Austria, who were betrothed as children. Wilhelm came to Krakow, and the young lovers even met secretly, until, finally, one day the guards of the Krakow archbishop closed the gates of the castle where the duke lived in front of the powerless queen, and escorted him out of Poland. After much persuasion, especially from the clergy, who promised the queen the highest reward in heaven for the conversion of pagans, Jadwiga agreed to marry Jagiello, who thus became the Polish king.

Vitovt Keistutovich, Jagiello's cousin, in 1386 also agreed to convert to Catholicism and plant it in Lithuania. It is curious that before that Vytautas was also baptized according to the Catholic rite in 1382, but in 1384 he converted to Orthodoxy. Despite further wars with Jagiello, Vytautas, having defended his right to the Lithuanian throne, recognized his vassalage to the Polish crown and continued the imposition of Catholicism.

The union of Lithuania with Poland, accompanied by a defeat in the rights of the Orthodox nobility, dealt the first serious blow to Lithuania's attempts to stand at the head of all Russia.

Defeat from the Golden Horde

The Golden Horde was the main enemy of Lithuania in the east. In 1399, Vitovt went on a campaign with a powerful army, including Lithuanians, Russians, Poles, Teutons and Tatars - opponents of Khan Timur-Kutlug. The parties agreed on the Vorskla River. Khan won time by negotiations in anticipation of the troops of Temnik Edigey, and on August 12, the Horde utterly defeated Lithuania. So Lithuania received a second serious blow. Eastern Russia remained in the sphere of influence of the Golden Horde.

Svidrigailov's turmoil

Orthodoxy in Lithuania long and stubbornly resisted the imposition of Catholicism. The most powerful reaction of the Orthodox population was the war for the Lithuanian throne, launched by Prince Svidrigail Olgerdovich. He himself was not Orthodox, but patronized the Orthodox population and tried to rely on their support, as well as on Moscow, in the struggle for power.

The wars of Svidrigailo, interspersed with truces, his captures, false oaths and renunciations of them, went from 1408 to 1440. In 1430-1432, after the death of Vytautas, Svidrigail managed to seize the throne of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania for a short time. But his cruel violent temper set the entire population of the principality against him, including the Orthodox, who made a fatal mistake by relying on such a person, and not even a co-religionist.

The Troubles of Svidrigailo turned out to be the last, third decisive blow to the alternative that Orthodox Lithuania could play in history as a unifier of all Russian lands.

The two armies are preparing for battle. Miniature from "The Tale of the Battle of Mamaev". 17th century list The British Library

The 14th century in the history of Russia was a time of change. This was the period when the Russian lands began to recover from terrible consequences Batu invasion, the yoke was finally established as a system for subordinating the princes to the power of the khans of the Golden Horde. Gradually, the most important issue was the unification specific principalities and creation centralized state, which could free itself from Tatar domination and gain sovereignty.

The role of the center of collecting Russian lands was claimed by several state formations, which intensified in the period after the campaigns of Batu. The old cities - Vladimir, Suzdal, Kyiv or Vladimir-Volynsky - could not recover from ruin and fell into decay, new centers of power arose on their periphery, between which the struggle for a great reign flared up.

Several state formations stood out among them (there were many more contenders), the victory of each of which would mean the emergence of a unique, unlike other states. It can be said that in early XIV centuries, the Russian principalities were at the crossroads, from which several roads diverged - possible paths for the development of Russia.

Novgorod land

The beating of the inhabitants of Ryazan by Batu Khan in 1237. Miniature from the Obverse chronicle. Mid 16th century RIA News"

Reasons for strengthening. During the Mongol invasion, Novgorod escaped ruin: Batu's cavalry did not reach the city for less than a hundred kilometers. According to various historians, either the spring thaw, or the lack of forage for horses, or the general fatigue of the Mongol army affected.

Since ancient times, Novgorod has been a crossroads of trade routes and the most important center of transit trade between Northern Europe, Baltic, Russian lands, byzantine empire and countries of the East. The cold snap that began in the 13th-14th centuries caused a sharp reduction in crop yields. Agriculture in Russia and in Europe, but Novgorod only intensified from this
by increasing the demand for bread in the Baltic markets.

Novgorod land until the final annexation to Moscow was the largest of the Russian principalities, covering vast areas
from the Baltic Sea to the Urals and from Torzhok to the Arctic Ocean. These lands were rich natural resources- furs, salt, wax. According to archaeological and historical data, Novgorod in the XIII
and the 14th century was the most big city in Russia.

territorial limits. Novgorod Rus is presented as a "colonial empire", the main direction of expansion of which is the development of the North, the Urals and Siberia.

Ethnic composition. Representatives of the North Russian people
and numerous Finno-Ugric tribes (Chud, Vesy, Korela, Voguls, Ostyaks, Permyaks, Zyryans, etc.), which are in a state of dependence
from Novgorod and obliged to pay yasak to the state treasury - a tax in kind, mainly furs.

social structure. The raw material nature of Novgorod's exports was the reason for the strong position of the boyars. At the same time, traditionally, the basis of Novgorod society was a rather broad middle class: the living and the people were landowners who had less capital and less influence than the boyars, who were often engaged in trade and usury; merchants, the largest of whom were members of the Ivanovo Sto, the highest guild of Novgorod merchants; artisans; natives - people of humble origin, who owned their own land allotment. Novgorod merchants, artisans and conquerors of new lands were not so much dependent on the feudal lords (boyars), having a greater share of freedom than their counterparts in other Russian principalities.

Novgorod market. Painting by Apollinary Vasnetsov. 1909 Wikimedia Commons

political device. The level of democracy in a society is proportional to the level of its well-being. Historians often call wealthy commercial Novgorod a republic. This term is very conditional, but reflects the special system of government that has developed there.

The basis of the administration of Novgorod was the veche - a people's meeting, at which the most pressing issues of the city's life were discussed. Veche was not a purely Novgorod phenomenon. Appeared at the pre-state stage of history Eastern Slavs, such bodies of direct democracy existed
in many lands until the XIII-XIV centuries and disappeared only after the establishment of the yoke. The reason was largely due to the fact that the khans of the Golden Horde dealt only with princes, while uprisings against the Tatars were often raised by representatives of urban communities. However, in Novgorod the veche turned from a city advisory body with uncertain powers into a key state governing body. This happened in 1136, after the Novgorodians expelled Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich from the city and decided from now on to invite the prince at their own discretion. His powers were now limited by the text of a specific contract, which provided, for example, how many servants the prince could bring with him, where he had the right to hunt, and even what payment he would receive for the performance of his duties. Thus, the prince in Novgorod was a hired administrator who kept order and led the army. In addition to the prince, there were several other administrative positions in Novgorod: the posadnik, who headed the executive branch and was in charge of the criminal court, the thousand - the head of the city militia (exercised control in the field of trade and ruled the court on commercial matters) and the archbishop, who was not only a religious leader , but also in charge of the treasury and represented the interests of the city in foreign policy.

Novgorod was divided into five districts-ends, and those, in turn, into streets. In addition to the citywide, there were also Konchan and Ulich vechas, at which issues of local importance were decided, where passions were seething and noses were often bloodied. These evenings were a place for an outburst of emotions
and rarely influenced city policy. The real power in the city was held by a narrow council of the so-called "300 Golden Belts" - the richest and most well-born boyars, who skillfully used veche traditions to their advantage. Therefore, despite the freedom-loving spirit of the Novgorodians and veche traditions, there are reasons to believe that Novgorod was more of a boyar oligarchy than a republic.

Sea chart by Olaf Magnus. 1539 One of the earliest maps of Northern Europe. Wikimedia Commons

Foreign policy. Traditionally, the most important partner and rival of the Novgorodians was the Hansa - a union of cities engaged in trade
across the Baltic Sea. Novgorodians could not conduct independent maritime trade and were forced to deal only with the merchants of Riga, Revel and Derpt, selling their goods cheaply and acquiring European ones at a high price. Therefore, a possible direction foreign policy Novgorod Rus, in addition to expansion to the east, there was an advance to the Baltic states and a struggle
for their trading interests. In this case, the inevitable opponents of Novgorod, in addition to the Hansa, would be the German knightly orders - Livonian and Teutonic, as well as Sweden.

Religion. Novgorod merchants were very religious people. This is evidenced by the number of temples preserved in the city to this day.
and monasteries. At the same time, many of the "heresies" that spread in Russia arose precisely in Novgorod - obviously, as a result of close ties
with Europe. As an example, we can cite the heresies of the Strigolniks and the “Judaizers” as a reflection of the processes of rethinking Catholicism
and the beginning of the Reformation in Europe. If Russia had its own Martin Luther, most likely he would be a Novgorodian.

Why didn't it work. Novgorod land was not densely populated. The number of inhabitants of the city itself XIV-XV centuries did not exceed 30 thousand people. Novgorod did not have sufficient human potential to fight for supremacy in Russia. Another serious problem facing Novgorod was its dependence on food supplies from the principalities located south of it. Bread went to Novgorod through Torzhok, so as soon as the Vladimir prince captured this city, the Novgorodians were forced to fulfill his demands. Thus, Novgorod gradually became increasingly dependent on neighboring lands - first Vladimir, then Tver, and finally Moscow.

Grand Duchy of Lithuania

Reasons for strengthening. In the X-XI centuries, Lithuanian tribes were
in a state of dependence on Kievan Rus. However, as a result of the collapse of the unified Russian state, they achieved independence already in the 1130s. There, the process of disintegration of the tribal community was in full swing. In this sense Lithuanian principality turned out to be in antiphase of its development with the surrounding (primarily Russian) lands, weakened by the separatism of local rulers and boyars. According to historians, the final consolidation of the Lithuanian state took place in the middle of the 13th century against the backdrop of the invasion of Batu and the increased expansion of the German knightly orders. The Mongol cavalry inflicted great damage on the Lithuanian lands, but at the same time cleared the space for expansion, creating a power vacuum in the region, which was used by the princes Mindovg (1195-1263) and Gediminas (1275-1341) to unite the Lithuanian, Baltic and Slavic tribes under their rule . Against the background of the weakening of the traditional centers of power, the inhabitants of Western Russia saw Lithuania as a natural defender in the face of danger from the Golden Horde and the Teutonic Order.

The victory of the Mongol army at the Battle of Legnica in 1241. Miniature from the legend of St. Hedwig of Silesia. 1353 Wikimedia Commons

territorial limits. In the period of its greatest prosperity under Prince Olgerd (1296-1377), the territories of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania stretched from the Baltic to the Northern Black Sea region, the eastern border ran approximately along the current border of Smolensk and Moscow, Oryol and Lipetsk, Kursk and Voronezh regions. Thus, his state included modern Lithuania, the entire territory of modern Belarus, Smolensk region, and after the victory over the army of the Golden Horde in the Battle of Blue Waters (1362) - a significant part of Ukraine, including Kyiv. In 1368-1372, Olgerd waged war with the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich. In the event that success smiled at Lithuania and she managed to conquer the great principality of Vladimir, Olgerd or his descendants would unite all Russian lands under their rule. Perhaps then our capital would now be Vilnius, not Moscow.

The third edition of the statute of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, written in the Rusyn language. Late 16th century Wikimedia Commons

Ethnic composition. The population of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the XIV century was only 10% Baltic peoples, who later became the basis of the Lithuanian, partly Latvian and Belarusian ethnic communities. The vast majority of the inhabitants, apart from Jews or Polish colonists, were Eastern Slavs. Thus, the written Western Russian language with Cyrillic letters (however, monuments written in Latin are also known) prevailed in Lithuania until the middle of the 17th century, it was used, among other things, in state document management. Despite the fact that the ruling elite in the country were Lithuanians, they
were not perceived by the Orthodox population as invaders. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a Balto-Slavic state in which the interests of both peoples were widely represented. Golden Horde yoke
and the transition of the western principalities under the rule of Poland and Lithuania predetermined the emergence of three East Slavic peoples - Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.

Extremely curious appearance in the Principality of Lithuania Crimean Tatars and Karaites, apparently related to the reign of Prince Vitovt
(1392-1430). According to one version, Vitovt resettled several hundred families of Karaites and Crimean Tatars to Lithuania. According to another, the Tatars fled there after the defeat of the Khan of the Golden Horde Tokhtamysh in the war with Timur (Tamerlane).

social structure. The social structure in Lithuania differed slightly from what was typical for the Russian lands. Most of the arable land was part of the princely domain, which was cultivated by involuntary servants and taxable people - categories of the population who were personally dependent on the prince. However, often non-taxable peasants were also involved in work on the princely lands, including syabrs - personally free farmers who jointly owned arable land and lands. In addition to the Grand Duke, in Lithuania there were also specific princes (as a rule, Gediminovichi), who ruled different areas of the state, as well as large feudal lords - pans. Boyars and Zemyany were in military service
from the prince and received for this the right to own land. Separate categories of the population were philistines, clergy and Ukrainians - residents of the "Ukrainian" territories bordering the steppe and the Moscow principality.

Wooden panel depicting the coat of arms of one of the noble families of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. 15th century Getty Images / Fotobank.ru

political device. The supreme power belonged to the Grand Duke (the term "ruler" was also used). The appanage princes and pans obeyed him. However, over time, the positions of the nobility and local feudal lords strengthened in the Lithuanian state. The council of the most influential pans, which appeared in the 15th century, was at first a legislative body under the prince, like a boyar duma. But by the end of the century, the Rada began to limit the princely power. At the same time, the Sejm appeared - a class-representative body, in which only representatives of the upper class - the gentry took part (in contrast to the Zemsky Sobors in Russia).

The lack of a clear order of succession to the throne also weakened the princely power in Lithuania. After the death of the old ruler, strife often arose, fraught with the danger of the collapse of a single state. In the end, the throne often went not to the oldest, but to the most cunning and warlike of the applicants.

As the position of the nobility strengthened (especially after the conclusion of the Union of Krevo with Poland in 1385 Union of Krevo- agreement
on the dynastic union between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland,
according to which the Lithuanian Grand Duke Jagiello, having married the Polish Queen Jadwiga, was proclaimed the Polish king.) The state of Lithuania developed
towards a limited gentry monarchy with an elected ruler.

A fragment of a letter from Khan Tokhtamysh to the King of Poland, the Grand Duke of Lithuania Jagiello. 1391 Khan asks to collect taxes and reopen roads for ortaks, official state traders in the service of the Chingizids. Ms. Dr. Marie Favereau-Doumenjou / Universiteit Leiden

Foreign policy. The very emergence of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
in many respects it was a response to the foreign policy challenges faced by the population of the Baltic states and Western Russian principalities - the Mongol invasion and the expansion of the Teutonic and Livonian knights. Therefore, the struggle for independence and resistance to forced Catholicization became the main content of Lithuania's foreign policy. The Lithuanian state hung between two worlds - Catholic Europe and Orthodox Russia, and had to make its civilizational choice, which would determine its future. This choice was not easy. Among the Lithuanian princes there were enough Orthodox (Olgerd, Voyshelk) and Catholics (Gediminas, Tovtivil), and Mindovg and Vitovt several times switched from Orthodoxy to Catholicism and back. Foreign policy orientation and faith went hand in hand.

Religion. Lithuanians remained pagans for a long time. This partly explains the inconstancy of the Grand Dukes in matters of religion. There were enough Catholic and Orthodox missionaries in the state, there were Catholic and Orthodox dioceses, and one of the Lithuanian metropolitans, Cyprian, became the Metropolitan of Kyiv in 1378-1406.
and all Russia. Orthodoxy in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania played an outstanding role for the upper strata of society and cultural circles, providing education - including the Baltic nobility from the Grand Duke's environment. Therefore, Lithuanian Rus, without a doubt, would be an Orthodox state. However, the choice of faith was also the choice of an ally. All European monarchies headed by the Pope stood behind Catholicism, while only the Russian principalities subordinated to the Horde and the agonizing Byzantine Empire were Orthodox.

King Vladislav II Jagiello. Detail of the Virgin Mary triptych from the Cathedral of Saints Stanislaus and Wenceslas. Krakow, 2nd half of the 15th century Wikimedia Commons

Why didn't it work. After the death of Olgerd (1377), the new Lithuanian prince Jagiello converted to Catholicism. In 1385, under the terms of the Union of Krevo, he married Queen Jadwiga and became the Polish king, effectively uniting these two states under his rule. For the next 150 years, Poland and Lithuania, formally considered two independent states, were almost always ruled by one ruler. Polish political, economic and cultural influence on the Lithuanian lands was growing. Over time, the Lithuanians were baptized into Catholicism, and the Orthodox population of the country found itself in a difficult and unequal situation.

Muscovy

Reasons for strengthening. One of the many fortresses founded by the Prince of Vladimir Yuri Dolgoruky on the borders of his land, Moscow was distinguished by its favorable location. The city stood at the crossroads of river and land trade routes. It was possible to get to the Volga along the Moscow and Oka rivers, as the significance of the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” weakened, gradually turning into the most important trade artery along which goods from the East traveled. There was also the possibility of overland trade with Europe through Smolensk and Lithuania.

Kulikovo battle. Fragment of the icon "Sergius of Radonezh with life". Yaroslavl, XVII century Bridgeman Images/Fotodom

However, it is finally clear how successful the location of Moscow turned out to be after the invasion of Batu. Not avoiding ruin and burned to the ground, the city quickly rebuilt. Its population increased annually due to immigrants from other lands: sheltered by forests, swamps and lands of other principalities, Moscow did not suffer so much in the second half of the 13th century
from the devastating campaigns of the Horde khans - warriors.

An important strategic position and an increase in the number of inhabitants of the city led to the fact that in 1276 Moscow had its own prince - Daniel, the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky. The successful policy of the first Moscow rulers also became a factor in strengthening the principality. Daniil, Yuri and Ivan Kalita encouraged the settlers, providing them with benefits and temporary exemption from taxes, increased the territory of Moscow by annexing Mozhaisk, Kolomna, Pereslavl-Zalessky, Rostov, Uglich, Galich, Beloozero and achieving recognition of vassal dependence on the part of some others (Novgorod, Kostroma, etc.). They rebuilt and expanded the city fortifications, paid great attention to cultural development and temple construction. From the second decade of the XIV century, Moscow fought with Tver for the great reign of Vladimir. The key event in this struggle was the "Shchelkanov's army" of 1327. Ivan Kalita, who joined the army of Shevkal (in different readings also Cholkhan or Shchelkan), Uzbek's cousin, on his orders led the Tatar troops in such a way that the lands of his principality were not affected by the invasion. Tver never recovered from the destruction - the main rival of Moscow in the struggle for the great reign and influence on the Russian lands was defeated.

territorial limits. Muscovy was a constantly growing state. While the rulers of other Russian lands divided them among their sons, contributing to the increasing fragmentation of Russia, the Moscow princes in various ways (inheritance, military seizure, purchase of a label, etc.) increased the size of their lot. In a sense, Moscow played into the hands of the fact that out of the five sons of Prince Daniel Alexandrovich, four died childless and Ivan Kalita ascended the throne, inheriting the entire Moscow appanage, carefully collecting lands and changing the order of succession to the throne in his will. In order to consolidate the dominance of Moscow, it was necessary to preserve the integrity of the inherited possessions. Therefore, Kalita bequeathed to his younger sons to obey the elder in everything and unevenly distributed the land between them. Most of them remained with the eldest son, while the inheritances of the younger ones were rather symbolic: even united, they could not challenge the Moscow prince. The observance of the will and the preservation of the integrity of the principality was facilitated by the fact that many descendants of Ivan Kalita, such as Simeon the Proud, died in 1353, when a plague pandemic, known as the Black Death, reached Moscow.

After the victory over Mamai on the Kulikovo field (in 1380), Moscow was almost uncontestedly perceived as the center of the unification of Russian lands. In his will, Dmitry Donskoy transferred the Vladimir Grand Duchy as his fiefdom, that is, as an unconditional hereditary possession.

Ethnic composition. Before the arrival of the Slavs, the interfluve of the Volga and Oka was the boundary of the settlement of the Baltic and Finno-Ugric tribes. Over time, they were assimilated by the Slavs, but as early as the 14th century, compact settlements of Mary, Murom or Mordovians could be found in the Moscow principality.

social structure. The Moscow principality was originally a monarchy. But at the same time, the prince did not have absolute power. The boyars enjoyed great influence. So, Dmitry Donskoy bequeathed to his children to love the boyars and do nothing without their consent. The boyars were the vassals of the prince and formed the basis of his senior squad. At the same time, they could change their overlord, moving to the service of another prince, which happened often.

The younger combatants of the prince were called "youths" or "gridi". Then the prince's "court" servants appeared, which could be free people and even serfs. All these categories eventually united into a group of “children of the boyars”, who never grew up to be boyars, but formed the social base of the nobility.

In the Moscow principality, the system of local relations was intensively developing: the nobles received land from the Grand Duke (from his domain) for service and for the duration of their service. This made them dependent on the prince
and strengthened his power.

Peasants lived on the lands of private owners - boyars or princes. For the use of land, it was necessary to pay dues and perform some work (“product”). Most of the peasants had personal freedom, that is, the right to move from one landowner to another,
at the same time, there was also an “involuntary servant”, who did not have such rights.

Portrait of Dmitry Donskoy. Yegoryevsky Historical and Artisticmuseum. Painting by an unknown artist. 19th century Getty Images/Fotobank

political device. Muscovy was a monarchy. All power - executive, legislative, judicial, military - belonged to the prince. On the other hand, the control system was far
from absolutism: the prince was too dependent on his squad - the boyars, the top of which was part of the princely council (a kind of prototype of the boyar duma). The key figure in the management of Moscow was the thousand. He was appointed prince from among the boyars. Initially, this position assumed the leadership of the city militia, but over time, with the support of the boyars, the thousandths concentrated in their hands some of the powers of city government (court, supervision of trade). In the middle of the XIV century, their influence was so high that even the princes themselves had to take them seriously.
But as the power of Daniel's descendants strengthened and centralized, the situation changed, and in 1374 Dmitry Donskoy abolished this position.

Local government was carried out by representatives of the prince - governors. Through the efforts of Ivan Kalita, there was no classical appanage system in the Muscovite state, but the younger brothers of the Moscow ruler received small allotments. In the boyar estates and noble estates, their owners were given the right to keep order and administer justice.
on behalf of the prince.

Kulikovo battle. Miniature from the Life of St. Sergius of Radonezh. 17th century Getty Images / Fotobank.ru

Foreign policy. The main directions of the foreign policy activity of the Moscow principality were the collection of lands and the struggle for independence from the Golden Horde. Moreover, the first was inextricably linked with the second: in order to challenge the khan, it was necessary to accumulate strength and bring the united all-Russian army against him. Thus, in relations between Moscow and the Horde, two phases can be seen - the phase of obedience and cooperation and the phase of confrontation. The first was personified by Ivan Kalita, one of whose main merits, according to the chroniclers, was the cessation of the Tatar raids and the “great silence” that lasted the next 40 years. The second originates during the reign of Dmitry Donskoy, who felt strong enough behind him to challenge Mamai. This was partly due to the long turmoil in the Horde, known as the "great zamyatnya", during which the state split into separate regions-uluses, and the power in its western part was seized by the temnik Mamai, who was not a Genghisid (a descendant of Genghis Khan), and therefore rights the puppet khans he proclaimed were not legitimate. In 1380, Prince Dmitry defeated the army of Mamai on the Kulikovo field, but two years later Genghis Khan Tokhtamysh captured and plundered Moscow, once again imposing tribute on it and restoring his power over it. Vassal dependence persisted for another 98 years, but in relations between Moscow and the Horde, increasingly rare phases of obedience were increasingly replaced by phases of confrontation.

Another direction of the foreign policy of the Moscow principality was relations with Lithuania. The advance of Lithuania to the east due to the inclusion of Russian lands in its composition stopped as a result of a collision with the intensified Muscovite princes. AT XV-XVI centuries the united Polish-Lithuanian state turned into the main opponent of the Moscow rulers, given their foreign policy program, which involved the unification under their rule of all Eastern Slavs, including those who lived in the Commonwealth.

Religion. Uniting Russian lands around itself, Moscow relied on help from the church, which, unlike the secular feudal lords, was always interested in the existence of a single state. The alliance with the church became another reason for the strengthening of Moscow in the first half of the 14th century. Prince Ivan Kalita launched a storm of activity in the city, building several stone churches: the Cathedral of the Assumption, the Cathedral of the Archangel, which became the burial place of the Moscow princes, the court church of the Savior on Bor and the church of St. John of the Ladder. One can only guess what this construction cost him. The Tatars were very jealous of this: all the extra money, in their opinion, should have gone to the Horde as a tribute, and not spent on the construction of temples. However, the game was worth the candle: Ivan Danilovich managed to convince Metropolitan Peter, who had lived in Moscow for a long time, to leave Vladimir completely. Peter agreed, but died the same year and was buried in Moscow. His successor Theognost finally made Moscow the center of the Russian metropolis, and the next metropolitan, Alexy, was from Moscow.

Why did it work. The success was associated with two major military victories for Moscow. The victory in the war with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1368-1372) and the recognition by Olgerd of Dmitry's right to the great reign of Vladimir meant that Lithuania admitted its defeat in the struggle for the unification of Russian lands. The victory on the Kulikovo field - even though it did not mean the end of the yoke - had a huge moral impact on the Russian people. Moscow Russia was forged in this battle, and the authority of Dmitry Donskoy was such that in his will he transferred the great reign as his fiefdom, that is, a hereditary inalienable right that does not need to be confirmed with a Tatar label, humiliating himself in the Horde before the Khan.

THE RUSSIAN STATE IN THE FIRST THIRD OF THE XVI CENTURY

Questions in the text of the paragraph

When was the unification of the northeastern and northwestern Russian lands around Moscow completed? What task did the grand dukes face after the completion of the unification of the Russian lands around Moscow?

At Basil III with the annexation of Pskov (1510), Smolensk (1514), Ryazan (1521), Belgorod (1523), the unification of the lands of North-Eastern and North-Western Russia around Moscow was completed. The main task of the sovereign was the transformation of the once independent lands into a single Russian state. The first national institutions were created, a single army appeared - the noble local militia, a communication system. The country was divided into districts, headed by Moscow governors.

What is an inheritance? To whom were allotments allocated?

An appanage is a part of a grand principality that was owned and controlled by a member of the grand ducal family. Also, the share of the representative of the princely family in the family property was called the inheritance. Despite the fact that the inheritance was under the control of the specific prince, it belonged to the Grand Duke. Often, appanages were formed as a result of inheritance, donation, land redistribution, and even violent seizures. In connection with the creation of the Russian state, the formation of specific principalities ceased: the last, Uglich, was abolished in 1591.

Questions and tasks for working with the text of the paragraph

1. Explain the economic and political meaning of securing the exclusive right to mint coins for the Grand Duke.

The grand ducal monopoly on the right to mint coins made it possible to streamline the commodity-money turnover, which had a positive effect on the development of trade. Accordingly, trade brought income to the state treasury. In addition, at that time there were no paper substitutes for money, and therefore, it was not required to have security for the money supply in circulation - the coins themselves were minted from precious metals and were of independent value. This means that the sovereign's ability to implement his own plans that require funding was limited only by the amount of precious metals mined. At any moment, the sovereign could give an order to put into circulation as many coins as needed. This gave the sovereign a certain freedom in decision-making. There was also a political meaning in the right to mint coins. Thus, the sovereign demonstrated the supremacy of the supreme power and acted in the international political arena as an equal ruler.

2. Was the unification of Russia inevitable?

Of course, the unification of Russia was not inevitable. It cannot be said that the unification took place without wars, blood, betrayal. Their outcome is impossible to predict. And only the desire of the rulers of the state and the people to unite made it possible to overcome all difficulties and create a single Russian state.

3. Describe the role of the sovereign's court in governing the country.

The Sovereign Court is the ruling elite of Moscow society. It included representatives of the old boyar families, as well as the princes and their boyars who switched to the Moscow service. From the members of the sovereign's court, governors, governors, butlers, ambassadors, their assistants and subordinates were appointed; they also served in the court positions of crouching, bedding, sleeping bags. The less noble servants of the great sovereign guarded the palace, participated in court ceremonies, made up the retinue of the ruler during his departures, and were part of the sovereign's regiment - the main part of the Moscow army. In fact, the closest associates and assistants of the sovereign, who carried out his will and decisions in all Russian lands and represented the interests of the sovereign abroad.

4. What was the source of income of the sovereign governors? Why was this form of receiving funds called "feeding"?

The source of income for the sovereign governors and their servants was money and food provided by the population of the territory controlled by the governor. This system was called "feeding", because indeed, the governor lived on the funds that people brought him. Moreover, the amount of content - "feed" - was determined and regulated by charter letters.

5. From whom in the first third of the XVI century. formed a single army? Explain the origin of the names of these estates.

A single army at the beginning of the 16th century consisted of the equestrian noble local militia, the "city regiments" and the "farming rati". The local army was the basis of the Russian army and constituted the main branch of the army - the cavalry. Part local troops included landed nobles, people in the service of the sovereign. For service to the landlord was given a land allotment and a monetary allowance. For this, the landowner had to appear himself at the call of the sovereign, and also bring his people - from every 100 four (about 50 acres) of land, one warrior “on a horse and in full armor” was to go on a campaign, and on a long trip - "about two horses." "City regiments" were recruited from the townspeople, and "farm army" - from the rural population. Mercenary detachments were also an integral part of the troops - at that time on a contractual basis military service carried "serving Tatar princes", "Horde princes", Lithuanian princes with their warriors.

By the second half of the 16th century, foot and equestrian city Cossacks, archery regiments and artillery "outfit" began to appear in the Russian army. Archers were recruited from free people. For their service, they received a salary (irregularly) and plots of land near cities, for which they were obliged to serve for life and hereditarily. The archers lived in special settlements, were engaged in trade and crafts. The archers were trained in formation and firing from the squeaker. Streltsy were the first permanent, but not yet regular, army in Russia. The Streltsy army was the core of the infantry in wars.

The artillery "outfit" in the 16th century stood out as an independent branch of the military. The government encouraged service in the attire of gunners and tinkers with the necessary knowledge and skill. Artillery was divided into fortress, designed to protect cities, siege - wall and field artillery with medium and light guns.

Working with the map

Show on the map the territorial acquisitions of Basil III listed in the paragraph.

Consider the map on page 29 of the textbook

The capitals of the lands annexed to Russia during the reign of Vasily III are underlined on the map with blue lines. It:

• Pskov land in 1510
• Smolensk land in 1514
• Pereyaslavl-Ryazanskaya in 1521
• Belgorod land in 1523.

We study documents

What are the qualities of the character of VasilyIII can be judged by this fragment of the letter?

From this fragment of the letter, we can conclude that Vasily III was a loving and caring husband and father.

2. Why was the veche bell removed from the city?

Vasily III, in bringing Pskov to obedience, followed the example of Ivan III in his struggle with Novgorod. In the same way as in Novgorod, as a sign that there will never be veche traditions in Pskov again, the veche bell was taken out of the city.

Thinking, comparing, reflecting

1. Using the text of the paragraph and the Internet, draw up in electronic form (or in a notebook) a scheme for governing the Russian state in the first third of the 16th century.

2. Explain the meaning of the phrase: “At the church council, Ivan III proposed “from the metropolitan, and from all the lords, and from all the monasteries of the village, poimati”, and in return to provide them “from his treasury with money ... and bread.”

The phrase means that Ivan III proposed to seize its property and lands from the Church and transfer them to state control. To which he received the answer that the ancestors of Ivan III endowed the Russian Orthodox Church with lands, and all the acquisitions and accumulations of the church are God's accumulations.

3. Compare the Russian estate and the European fief according to the following characteristics: a) who endowed; b) for what they gave; c) the right of disposal (inheritance, sale, exchange, etc.); d) right of withdrawal. Present the results in a notebook in the form of a table.

Characteristic	Russian estate	European fief
Who endowed	Sovereign	Senior
For what they gave	For military, and later any public service.	It was allocated only to nobles on the terms of military, administrative or court service as a vassal in favor of the lord
Right of disposal	The landowner has the right to transfer the estate by inheritance if the son comes to the service instead of the father. Sale and exchange of the estate is not allowed.	The right of the vassal to use the feud remained with him only on condition that the vassal served in favor of the lord. The feud could be the property of the feudal lord, but could only be in use. The feud could be inherited.
Right of withdrawal	It is withdrawn if the landowner ceases his service and does not transfer the service to his son. Partially withdrawn if the landowner dies in the service - the widow remains part of the estate.	If the vassal ceased to fulfill his obligations, the lord had the right to take away the fief.

4. Give examples showing the significance of the unification of Russian lands around Moscow.

A single Russian state was formed, strife practically ceased, the economy and commodity-money relations began to develop, laws uniform for all lands were adopted, a single army was created, and a centralized control system was formed. The formation of a unified Russian state was of great positive significance both for economic development included in its composition of the land, and to protect them from attacks by neighbors.

Possible questions in the lesson

What are the prerequisites for the formation of a unified Russian state

Spiritual

1. Common historical roots of peoples, ancient Russian statehood.
2. The spiritual and cultural unity of the people in the conditions of fragmentation was preserved on the basis of a single faith - Orthodoxy.
3. One Church supported the unification of the country.
4. The growth of the national self-consciousness of the Russian people, awareness of the importance of spiritual and cultural unity.

Socio-economic

1. The revival and development of the economic life of the country (increasing the productivity of agriculture, strengthening the commercial nature of handicrafts, the growth of cities and trade).
2. Stability and order, strong power were necessary to strengthen the economic, commercial foundations of the country, its development, which was supported by almost all social groups.
3. The growing dependence of peasants on large landowners caused resistance, which could be restrained by centralized power. At the same time, a strong government could also protect the peasants from the arbitrariness of the Horde and landowners.
4. The boyars and nobles were interested in preserving their possessions and securing the dependence of the peasants.

Political (internal and external)

1. The need to eliminate the consequences of the Horde yoke.
2. Strengthening and expansion of the power of the Moscow principality.
3. Union of the Orthodox Church and the Catholic Western Church, signed by the Byzantine-Constantinople Patriarch (Russia is the only Orthodox state).
4. An external threat to the borders of Russian lands (Lithuania, the Livonian Order, the Commonwealth, Sweden, etc.) forced them to look for ways to unite all forces and resources.

What did the rulers need to do to centralize the state?

For the centralization of the state, the rulers had to bring the land of the state into obedience, appoint their deputies, create a system of centralized administration, create uniform laws, form a strong army, to ensure order and obedience of the population, to streamline commodity-money relations.

Memorizing new words

Boyar Duma- the highest advisory body under the sovereign, which included "duma ranks" - boyars, roundabouts, duma nobles. Volost is the lowest administrative-territorial unit in Russia. Sovereign Court - an institution of social organization of landowners in Russia. Appeared at the end of the XII century. on the basis of the princely squad.

nobles- in the specific period - the service people of the prince and the boyars, who replaced the combatants; in the conditions of a unified Russian state - a privileged service class, which received an estate from the sovereign for the period of service.

"Children of the boyars"- provincial nobles who carried out compulsory service and received estates for it from the Grand Duke.

Feeding- the system of maintenance of officials at the expense of the local population, which provided them with “food” in cash or in kind (bread, meat, fish, oats, etc.) for the duration of their service.

Viceroy- an official that the Grand Duke put at the head of the county; was in charge of the court, levied fines and court fees in favor of the state.

Orders- organs central control in Russia in the 16th - early 18th centuries. (Ambassadorial, Local, Zemsky, Petition, Treasury, etc.). They had a predominantly judicial function. Some of them controlled specific territories (order of the Kazan Palace, Siberian order, Novgorod couple, etc.).

Mill- an administrative-territorial unit that occupied an intermediate position between a county and a volost; two or three camps made up the county.

county- the largest territorial unit in the united Russian state, created under Vasily III; in turn, divided into camps and volosts

In 1408, two centers of the unification of Russian lands - Moscow and Lithuania for the first time received a common border, but the collision was avoided and the principality lived peacefully for almost a century. But from the beginning of the 16th century, a series of conflicts began, most of which ended in favor of the eastern state. Although occasionally there were defeats, and the Time of Troubles after the death of the last Rurikovich briefly reversed the process of reconquest, Ancient Russia gradually revived under the hand of the Moscow ruler. Why did Moscow become the capital of Russia, and not Vilna?

Lithuania took full advantage of the Mongol invasion of Russian lands and began to annex the devastated principalities

The Lithuanians were the first to begin collecting Russian lands. In the period after the Mongol invasion until the early 1250s, Prince Mindovg occupied the western regions of the future Belarus. He and his descendants successfully defended the integrity of their new possessions from the Russian princes and their Horde overlords. And after the start of civil strife or the "great commotion" in the Golden Horde, Olgerd defeated three Tatar commanders in the Blue Waters and annexed Kyiv. The ancient capital of Prince Vladimir became a secondary city for the new rulers. Lithuania joined the race to annex the ownerless Russian lands.

At the time of the beginning of the Lithuanian conquests, Moscow was not even independent yet. In 1266, the young son of Alexander Nevsky Daniel received this city as his inheritance, which became the center of the new principality. His possessions were poor and small. But the prince was very lucky: in 1300, the Golden Horde Khan Tokhta defeated his recalcitrant commander Nogai. His Russian vassals went over to the service of Daniel and were used by him in wars to increase his principality.

In 1339, at the slander of Ivan Kalita, the Tver prince Alexander was killed by the Khan of the Golden Horde. After that, the only rival of Moscow was the Lithuanian state.

The liar, renegade and collaborator Ivan Kalita, son of Daniil, really strengthened the power of Moscow. He won the right to collect tribute for the khan from the Russian principalities, repeatedly directed the Tatar rati at all his enemies. But he kept his own lands intact. The children and grandchildren of Kalita only increased the army and the size of the state, until they equaled it in power with Lithuania, despite the late start.

However, the resources were not comparable. The northern Moscow principality was locked in forests, sparsely populated and had not very fertile soils, which barely allowed them to feed themselves. And Lithuania owned rich Ukrainian lands with a high population density. And the adoption of Catholicism and the union with Poland strengthened it even more.

The Lithuanian princes did everything to ensure that Western Russia, subordinate to them, received all the attributes of an “independent” power. With their submission, in 1317, Constantinople created a separate metropolis of the Russian Orthodox Church, not connected with Moscow. That time was vague for world Orthodoxy. The Turks ousted the Greeks from Asia and began territorial seizures in the Balkan Peninsula. Among the Greek Church, talk began about submitting to the pope in order to receive military aid Europe. The church hierarchs of Western Russia were also not opposed to recognizing the authority of Rome.

Fermentation began in their midst, which ended in 1596 with the announcement by the Metropolitan of Kyiv of the transition to submission to the Roman throne.

But this did not interfere with the rise of Moscow. What is the reason for the victory of the economically and militarily weaker Moscow principality? Its rulers did not stop paying tribute to the Golden Horde until the very end in order to be able to use the Tatar troops in their wars.

But this is only one reason for further victories. In 1385, the Lithuanian Grand Duke Jagiello was chosen as the King of Poland. A gradual merger of the two states began. The subsequent Union of Horodel equalized the rights of the Polish and Lithuanian Catholic nobility. But the Orthodox boyars were excluded from this privileged group. They were no longer allowed into the princely council. "Difference in faith produces difference in opinion," the union explained. The restriction of the rights of Russian subjects on their own lands began. The rulers of Lithuania, instead of a previously devoted vassal, received the eternally dissatisfied Western Russia - the "fifth column", always ready to stick a knife in the back.

Many Orthodox princes, according to the ancient Russian law, transferred to the service of the Moscow ruler. And this was not the end. The autocracy of the gentry in Poland and Lithuania led to the destruction of a strong central government. And in Moscow, the autocracy only strengthened. The first major military clash in 1500-1503 led to the loss of a third of Lithuania's possessions and the recognition of Ivan III of the title "sovereign of all Russia", i.e. his rights to the historical lands of the Eastern Slavs.

Three great deeds of Ivan III - the overthrow of the Tatar yoke, the adoption of the Byzantine heritage and the victory over Lithuania

The strong power and desire of Western Russia to unite with fellow believers led to the slow fall of the Commonwealth, which after the Pereyaslav Rada of 1654 became irreversible.

The unification of Russia is a process of political unification of disparate Russian lands into a single state.

Prerequisites for the unification of Kievan Rus

The beginning of the unification of Russia dates back to the 13th century. Until this moment Kievan Rus was not a single state, but consisted of scattered principalities that were subordinate to Kyiv, but still largely remained independent territories. Moreover, smaller destinies and territories arose in the principalities, which also lived an autonomous life. The principalities were constantly at war with each other and with Kyiv for the right to independence and independence, and the princes killed each other, wanting to claim the throne of Kyiv. All this weakened Russia, both politically and economically. As a result of constant civil strife and enmity, Russia could not gather a single strong army in order to resist the nomad raids and overthrow the Mongol-Tatar yoke. Against this background, the power of Kyiv was weakening and a need arose for the emergence of a new center.

Reasons for the unification of Russian lands around Moscow

After the weakening of the power of Kyiv and constant internecine wars, Russia desperately needed to be united. Only an integral state could resist the invaders and finally throw off the Tatar-Mongol yoke. A feature of the unification of Russia was that there was no one clear center of power, political forces were scattered throughout the territory of Russia.

At the beginning of the 13th century, there were several cities that could become the new capital. The centers of the unification of Russia could be Moscow, Tver and Pereyaslavl. It was these cities that had all the necessary qualities for the new capital:

• They had a favorable geographical position and were removed from the borders on which the invaders ruled;
• They had the opportunity to actively engage in trade due to the intersection of several trade routes;
• The princes ruling in the cities belonged to the Vladimir princely dynasty, which had great power.

In general, all three cities had approximately equal chances, however, the skillful rule of the Moscow princes led to the fact that it was Moscow that seized power and gradually began to strengthen its political influence. As a result, it was around the Moscow principality that a new centralized state began to form.

The main stages of the unification of Russia

In the second half of the 13th century, the state was in a state of strong fragmentation, new autonomous territories were constantly separated. Tatar-Mongol yoke interrupted the process of natural unification of lands, and the power of Kyiv by this period was greatly weakened. Russia was in decline and needed a completely new policy.

In the 14th century, many territories of Russia united around the capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In the 14-15 centuries, the great Lithuanian princes owned Gorodensky, Polotsk, Vitebsk, Kyiv and other principalities, Chernihiv, Volyn, Smolensk and a number of other lands were under their rule. The reign of the Ruriks was coming to an end. By the end of the 15th century, the Lithuanian principality had grown so much that it came close to the borders of the Moscow principality. The North-East of Russia all this time remained under the rule of a descendant of Vladimir Monomakh, and the Vladimir princes bore the prefix "all Russia", but their real power did not extend beyond Vladimir and Novgorod. In the 14th century, power over Vladimir passed to Moscow.

At the end of the 14th century, Lithuania joined the Kingdom of Poland, after which a series of Russo-Lithuanian wars followed, in which Lithuania lost many territories. New Russia began to gradually unite around the strengthened Moscow principality.

In 1389 Moscow becomes the new capital.

The final unification of Russia as a new centralized and unified state was completed at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries during the reign of Ivan 3 and his son Vasily 3.

Since then, Russia periodically annexed some new territories, but the basis of a single state had already been created.

Completion of the political unification of Russia

In order to keep the new state together and avoid its possible collapse, it was necessary to change the principle of government. Under Vasily 3, estates appeared - feudal estates. The fiefdoms were often crushed and smaller, as a result, the princes, who received their new possessions, no longer had power over vast territories.

As a result of the unification of the Russian lands, all power was gradually concentrated in the hands of the Grand Duke.