Invasion of 70,000 Polish-Lithuanian invaders. Polish-Lithuanian intervention. Publicistic works of the beginning of the 17th century

5 additional issue.
Russian society for the manufacture of shells and military supplies.
The charter was approved on August 22, 1910.
Fixed capital 60000000 rubles. M.F.I. STP. Stamp duty paid.


Capital de fondation 60000000 rubles.

This Provisional Certificate is issued for the right to receive fully paid one bearer share of the Russian Society for the manufacture of shells and military supplies.
Provisional share certificates will be exchanged for genuine shares upon their manufacture.
Petrograd 1917


Les certificats provisoires aux action seront échangés contre les actions originales aussitôt que ces dernières soient prêtes.
Petrograd 1917.
Accountant.
Comptable.
Cashier.
Caissier.
Chairman.
President.
Directors: F. von Kruse, O.O. Brunstrem.
Directeurs.
Extract from the decision of the Extraordinary General Meeting of Shareholders of February 16, 1917, approved on March 27, 1917 by the Ministry of Trade and Industry, on increasing the share capital of the Company.
Based on the permission of the Ministry of Trade and Industry and the resolution of the Extraordinary General Meeting of Shareholders dated February 16, 1917, the Russian Society for the Manufacture of Shells and Military Supplies issues new shares of the Company in the amount of 200,000 pieces, 100 nominal rubles each in the amount of twenty million rubles common nouns on the following terms:

2) Newly issued 200,000 shares participate in dividends, starting from 1917, on a par with shares of previous issues;
3) Holders of shares of previous issues shall enjoy the pre-emptive right to receive new shares in the amount of one share of a new issue for every two shares of previous issues.
Owners of shares of previous issues, wishing to exercise their right to purchase new shares, must submit appropriate applications no later than April 25, 1917. When applying, shares of previous issues and a full contribution of 165 rubles for each share declared for subscription must be submitted. Provisional shares will be marked accordingly, and upon payment of the above full contribution, the holders of the shares will be issued provisional certificates for the newly issued shares.
4) Shareholders who did not declare before April 25, 1917 their desire to purchase new shares in the above manner, or who did not pay the full contribution by this date, are considered to have refused to participate in the new issue.
5) Applications for subscription for shares and contributions are accepted at the Russian-Asiatic Bank in Petrograd.

5 additional issue
Russian Society for the manufacture of shells and military supplies.
The charter was approved on August 22, 1910.
The fixed capital is 60,000,000 rubles. M.F.I. STP. Stamp duty paid.
Société Russe pour la fabrication de munitions et d "armements.
Statuts sanctionnés le 22 Août 1910.
Capital de fondation 60,000,000 rubles.
Provisional Certificate No. 159169 paid in full per share for No. 559169 in 100 rubles to bearer.
This Provisional Certificate is issued for the right to receive fully paid one bearer share of the Russian Society for the manufacture of shells and military supplies.
Provisional share certificates will be exchanged for genuine shares upon their manufacture.
Petrograd 1917
Certificat Provisoire entièrement libéré pour une action de cent roubles au porteur.
Le présent certificat provisoire donne droit à une action au porteur entièrement libérée de la Société Russe pour la fabrication de munitions et d "armements.
Les certificats provisoires aux action seront échangés contre les actions originales aussitôt que ces dernières seront prêtes.
Petrograd 1917.
Accountant.
Comptable.
Cashier.
Caissier.
Chairman.
President.
Directors: F. von Kruse, O.O. Brunstrem.
Directeurs.
Extract from the resolution of the Extraordinary General Meeting of Shareholders of February 16, 1917, approved on March 27, 1917 by the Ministry of Trade and Industry, on increasing the share capital of the Company.
On the basis of the permission of the Ministry of Trade and Industry and the resolution of the Extraordinary General Meeting of Shareholders of February 16, 1917, the Russian Society for the manufacture of shells and military supplies, issues new shares of the Society in the amount of 200,000 pieces, 100 nominal rubles each in the amount of twenty million nominal rubles on the following terms:
1) The issue price of new shares is set at 165 rubles for each share.
2) Newly issued 200,000 shares participate in dividends, starting from 1917, on a par with shares of previous issues;
3) The holders of shares of previous issues shall enjoy the pre-emptive right to receive new shares in the amount of one share of a new issue for every two shares of previous issues.
The holders of shares of previous issues, who wish to exercise their right to acquire new shares, must submit their respective applications no later than April 25, 1917. When applying, shares of previous issues and a full contribution of 165 rubles must be submitted. for each share declared for subscription. Provisional shares will be marked accordingly, and upon payment of the above full contribution, the holders of the shares will be issued provisional certificates for the shares of the new issue.
4) Shareholders who have not declared before April 25, 1917 their desire to acquire new shares in the above manner, or who have not paid a full contribution by this date, are considered to have refused to participate in the new issue.
5) Applications for subscription for shares and contributions are accepted at the Russian-Asiatic Bank in Petrograd.

The union of Russia and Sweden, which fell on the period of the Polish-Swedish war, gave the Polish king Sigismund III an excuse to openly oppose Russia. The events of the Polish intervention are intertwined with the events of the subsequent Swedish intervention of 1611-1617.

Smolensk defense. In the autumn of 1609, the 12,000th Polish army with the support of 10 thousand Ukrainian Cossacks (subjects of Poland) besieged Smolensk. At that time Smolensk was the most powerful Russian fortress. In 1586-1602. the fortress walls and towers of Smolensk were rebuilt by the famous architect Fyodor Kon. The total length of the fortress walls was 6.5 km, the height was 13-19 m, and the thickness was 5-6 m. 170 cannons were installed on them.
An attempt at a sudden night assault on September 24, 1609 ended in failure. At the beginning of 1610, the Poles tried to dig, but they were promptly discovered and blown up by Smolensk miners. In the spring of 1610, Russian troops with Swedish mercenaries marched to Smolensk against the army of King Sigismund, but were defeated at the village of Klushino (north of Gzhatsk - 06/24/1610). It seemed that nothing could prevent the capture of the fortress. However, the garrison and the inhabitants of Smolensk on July 19 and 24, August 11 successfully repulsed the attacks. In September 1610 and March 1611, King Sigismund negotiated to persuade the besieged to capitulate, but did not achieve the goal. However, the position of the fortress after almost two years of siege was critical. Of the 80 thousand citizens, only a tenth survived. On the night of June 3, 1611, the Poles from four sides went on the fifth, which turned out to be the last, attack. The city was taken.

First militia (1611). The defeat of the Russian troops at the village of Klushino (06/24/1610) hastened the overthrow of Vasily IV Shuisky (July 1610) and the establishment of the power of the boyar government ("Seven Boyars"). Meanwhile, two troops approached Moscow: Zholkevsky and False Dmitry II from Kaluga. The Poles proposed to erect the son of Sigismund, Vladislav, to the throne of Moscow. Fearing False Dmitry, the Moscow nobility decided to agree with the candidacy of Vladislav, because they were afraid of reprisals from the Tushins. In addition, at the request of the Moscow boyars, who were afraid of an attack by the detachments of False Dmitry II, the Polish garrison under the command of Alexander Gonsevsky (5-7 thousand people) entered Moscow in the fall of 1610.
It soon became clear that Sigismund was in no hurry to send his son to the Moscow throne, but wanted to manage Russia himself as a conquered country. Here is what, for example, the inhabitants of the Smolensk region wrote to their compatriots, who had already experienced the power of Sigismund, who, by the way, first promised them various liberties. “We did not resist - and everyone died, we went to eternal work towards Latinism. If you are not now in union, in common with the whole earth, then you will bitterly weep and sob with inconsolable eternal weeping: the Christian faith in Latinism will be changed, and the Divine churches will be ruined with with all the beauty, and your Christian race will be slain with a fierce death, they will enslave and defile and dilute into a full of your mothers, wives and children. The authors of the letter warned about the real intentions of the invaders: "Withdraw the best people, to devastate all the lands, to own all the land of Moscow.
In December 1610, False Dmitry II died in a quarrel with his servants. Thus, the opponents of Vladislav and the "Tushinsky thief" were left with one enemy - a foreign prince, against whom they opposed. The inspirer of the campaign was the Orthodox Church. At the end of 1610, Patriarch Hermogenes sent letters around the country with a call to go against the Gentiles. For this, the Poles arrested the patriarch. But the call was received, and militia detachments moved from everywhere to Moscow. By Easter 1611, some of them reached the capital, where the uprising of the townspeople began. On March 19, a detachment of Prince Dmitry Pozharsky arrived in time to help them. But the Poles took refuge behind the fortress walls of the center of Moscow. On the advice of the boyars who remained with them, they set fire to the rest of the city, displacing the attackers from there with fire.
With the approach of the main forces of the militia (up to 100 thousand people), in early April, the fighting resumed. The militias occupied the main part of the White City, pushing the Poles to Kitay-Gorod and the Kremlin. On the night of May 21-22, a decisive assault on Kitay-gorod followed, but the besieged managed to repel it. Despite the large number, the militia failed to achieve its goals. It did not have a single structure, discipline, general leadership. The social composition of the militias was also heterogeneous, among which were both nobles and their former serfs with Cossacks. The interests of both regarding the future social structure of Russia were directly opposite.
The nobility militia was headed by Prokopiy Lyapunov, the Cossacks and former Tushinians were led by Ataman Ivan Zarutsky and Prince Dmitry Trubetskoy. However, a sharp rivalry began among the main leaders of the movement. On July 22, 1611, Lyapunov was killed on a false charge of intent against the Cossacks. The Cossacks began to beat his supporters, forcing them to leave the camp and go home. Mostly only the detachments of Trubetskoy and Zarutskoy remained near Moscow.
Meanwhile, in August, a detachment of Hetman Sapieha managed to break through to Moscow, which delivered food to the besieged. At the end of September, the Polish detachment of Hetman Khodkevich (2 thousand people) also approached the capital. In the course of several skirmishes, he was repulsed and retreated. The last major attempt by the First Militia to liberate Moscow was made in December 1611. The Cossacks, led by ataman Prosovetsky, blew up the gates of Kitay-Gorod and broke into the fortress. But the Poles repulsed the assault with fire from 30 guns. After this failure, the First Militia effectively collapsed.

Second militia (1612). The state of the Russian state in 1611 only worsened. Sigismund's army finally captured Smolensk. There was a Polish garrison in Moscow. The Swedes took Novgorod. Foreign and local gangs freely roamed the country, robbing the population. The top leadership was captured or on the side of the invaders. The state was left without a real central authority. "A little more - and Russia would have become a province of some Western European state, as it was with India," wrote the German researcher Schulze-Gevernitz.
True, the Poles, weakened by a long and unsuccessful war with the Swedes and the siege of Smolensk, could not seriously begin to conquer Russian lands. In the conditions of intervention, the collapse of the central government and the army, the last line of defense of Russia was the popular resistance, illuminated by the idea of ​​social rallying in the name of defending the Motherland. Class contradictions, characteristic of the first stages of the Time of Troubles, give way to the national-religious movement for the territorial and spiritual integrity of the country. Who rallied everything social groups The Russian Orthodox Church acted as a force in defense of national dignity. Imprisoned in the Kremlin, Patriarch Hermogenes continued to distribute appeals through his associates - letters, urging compatriots to fight against non-believers and troublemakers. The Trinity-Sergius Monastery also became the center of patriotic propaganda, where the proclamations were composed by Archimandrite Dionysius and cellarer Avraamiy Palitsyn.
One of the letters came to the Nizhny Novgorod Zemstvo headman, the meat merchant Kuzma Minin. In the autumn of 1611 he spoke in Nizhny Novgorod before fellow citizens, urging them to give their strength and property to the defense of the Fatherland. He himself made the first contribution, allocating a third of his money (100 rubles) to create a militia. The majority of Nizhny Novgorod residents decided to do the same. Those who refused were forced to do so. Prince Dmitry Pozharsky was invited to lead the militia.
In January 1612 the militia moved to Yaroslavl, establishing its power in the northeastern regions. The second militia was more homogeneous than the first. It consisted mainly of service, zemstvo people of North-Eastern Russia. The militia did not immediately go to Moscow, but stopped in Yaroslavl in order to strengthen the rear and expand the base of their movement. But soon they became aware that a large detachment of Hetman Khodkiewicz was coming to the capital to help the Polish garrison. Then Pozharsky hurried to Moscow.
Approaching the capital, the Second Militia (about 10 thousand people) took up positions near the Novodevichy Convent, on the left bank of the Moscow River. On the right bank, in Zamoskvorechye, there were Cossack detachments of Prince Trubetskoy (2.5 thousand people), who had been standing near Moscow since the time of the First Militia. Soon a detachment of Khodkevich (up to 12 thousand people) approached the capital, with which the militias fought on August 22 near the Novodevichy Convent. Gradually, the Poles pushed the militias to the Chertolsky Gate (the area of ​​​​Prechistenka and Ostozhenka streets). At this critical moment of the battle, part of the Cossacks from the Trubetskoy camp crossed the river and attacked the Khodkevich detachment, which could not withstand the onslaught of fresh forces and retreated to Novodevichy Convent.
However, on the night of August 23, a small part of Khodkevich's detachment (600 people) nevertheless managed to penetrate the Kremlin to the besieged (3 thousand people) and in the morning they made a successful sortie, seizing a bridgehead on the banks of the Moscow River. On August 23, Khodkevich's detachment crossed to Zamoskvorechye and occupied the Donskoy Monastery. The Poles decided to break through to the besieged through the positions of Trubetskoy, hoping for the instability of his troops and the disagreements of the Russian military leaders. In addition, Zamoskvorechye, burned down by fires, was poorly fortified. But Pozharsky, having learned about the hetman's plans, managed to send part of his forces there to help Trubetskoy.
On August 24, a decisive battle broke out. The most fierce battle ensued for the Klimentovsky jail (Pyatnitskaya street), which more than once passed from hand to hand. In this battle cellar Abraham Palitsyn distinguished himself, who at a critical moment persuaded the Cossacks not to retreat. Inspired by the priest's speech and the promised reward, they launched a counterattack and recaptured the prison in a fierce battle. By evening, he remained behind the Russians, but there was no decisive victory. Then a detachment headed by Minin (300 people) crossed to Zamoskvorechye from the left bank of the river. With an unexpected blow to the flank, he attacked the Poles, causing confusion in their ranks. At this time, the Russian infantry, who had settled in the ruins of Zamoskvorechye, also went on the attack. This double blow decided the outcome of the battle. Khodkevich, having lost half of his detachment in three-day battles, retreated from Moscow to the west.
"The Poles suffered such a significant loss," wrote the Polish historian of the 17th century Koberzhitsky, that it could not be rewarded with anything. The wheel of fortune turned, and the hope of capturing the entire Muscovite state collapsed irrevocably. On October 26, 1612, the remnants of the Polish garrison in the Kremlin, driven to despair by hunger, capitulated. The liberation of the Russian capital from the invaders created the conditions for the restoration of state power in the country.

Defense of Volokolamsk (1612). After the liberation of Moscow by the forces of the Second Home Guard, the Polish king Sigismund began to gather forces in order to recapture the Russian capital. But the Polish nobility was tired of the war and for the most part did not want to participate in a dangerous winter campaign. As a result, the king managed to recruit only 5 thousand people for such a serious operation. Despite the obvious lack of strength, Sigismund still did not retreat from his plan and in December 1612 set out on a campaign against Moscow. On the way, his army besieged Volokolamsk, where there was a garrison under the command of the governor Karamyshev and Chemesov. The defenders of the city rejected the offer of surrender and valiantly fought off three attacks, inflicting serious damage on Sigismund's army. The Cossack chieftains Markov and Yepanchin especially distinguished themselves in battles, who, according to the chronicle, actually led the defense of the city.
While Sigismund was besieging Volokolamsk, one of his detachments under the command of Zholkovsky set off for reconnaissance to Moscow, but was defeated in a battle near the city. This defeat, as well as the failure of the main forces near Volokolamsk, did not allow Sigismund to continue the offensive against the Russian capital. The king lifted the siege and retreated to Poland. This made it possible to freely hold the Zemsky Sobor in Moscow, which chose a new tsar, Mikhail Romanov.

Raid of Lisovsky (1614). In the summer of 1614, the Polish-Lithuanian cavalry detachment under the command of Colonel Lisovsky (3 thousand people) made a deep raid on Russian lands. The raid began from the Bryansk region. Then Lisovsky approached Orel, where he fought with the army of Prince Pozharsky. The Poles overthrew the Russian vanguard of the voivode Isleniev, but the stamina of the soldiers who remained with Pozharsky (600 people) did not allow Lisovsky to develop success. By evening, the fleeing units of Isleniev returned to the battlefield, and Lisovsky's detachment retreated to Kromy. Then he moved to Vyazma and Mozhaisk. Soon Pozharsky fell ill and went to Kaluga for treatment. After that, his detachment broke up due to the departure of military men to their homes, and Lisovsky was able to continue his campaign without hindrance.
His path ran through the Kostroma, Yaroslavl, Murom and Kaluga regions. Lisovsky bypassed big cities, devastating their surroundings. Several governors were sent in pursuit of the elusive detachment, but nowhere did they succeed in blocking his path. Near Aleksin, Lisovsky had a skirmish with the army of Prince Kurakin, and then left the Russian borders. The successes of the "foxes" testified not only to the talents of their leader, but also to the difficult state of Russia, which was not yet able to effectively protect itself from raids. Lisovsky's raid did not have a special impact on the course of the Russian-Polish war, but left a long memory in the Muscovite state.

Astrakhan campaign (1614). If Lisovsky managed to avoid retribution, then another major "hero" of the Time of Troubles was nevertheless captured that year. It's about about Ivan Zarutsky. Back in 1612, he tried to destroy Pozharsky with the help of assassins, and then left Moscow to the south with a radical part of the Cossacks. On the way, the ataman captured the wife of two False Dmitrys, Marina Mnishek, who lived with her son in Kaluga after the murder of False Dmitry II. In 1613, with a detachment of Cossacks (2-3 thousand people), Zarutsky tried to once again raise the southern regions of Russia against Moscow. But the population, convinced over the past terrible years in the destructiveness of civil strife, did not support the chieftain. In May 1613, in the battle near Voronezh, Zarutsky was defeated by the troops of the governor Odoevsky and retreated even further south. Ataman captured Astrakhan and decided to create an independent state there under the auspices of the Iranian Shah.
But the Cossacks, tired of the turmoil and attracted by the promises of the new Moscow authorities to take them into service, did not support the ataman. Residents of Astrakhan treated Zarutsky with open hostility. The Shah of Iran, who did not want to quarrel with Moscow, also refused to help. Having no serious support, Zarutsky and Marina Mnishek fled from Astrakhan at the news of the government troops approaching the city. Terrible in the past, the ataman was soon defeated by a small detachment (700 people) of the tsarist governor Vasily Khokhlov. Zarutsky tried to hide on the Yaik River, but local Cossacks betrayed him to the authorities. Ataman and the son of Marina Mnishek were executed, and Marina herself was imprisoned, where she died. With the liberation of Astrakhan, the most dangerous center of internal unrest was eliminated.

Moscow campaign of Vladislav (1618). The last major event In the autumn of 1618, the Polish prince tried to seize Moscow in the hope of restoring his rights to the Russian throne. On September 20, the Polish army approached the Russian capital and camped in the famous Tushino. At this time, detachments of Ukrainian Cossacks (subjects of Poland) headed by Hetman Sahaidachny approached the Donskoy Monastery from the south. Muscovites tried to prevent his connection with Vladislav, but, according to the chronicle, they were so afraid that they let the hetman's army into Tushino without a fight. The horror of the townspeople was increased by a comet that in those days stood over the city.
Nevertheless, when the Poles attacked Moscow on the night of October 1, they met a worthy rebuff. The most heated battle broke out at the Arbat Gates, where a detachment of archers led by the stolnik Nikita Godunov (487 people) distinguished himself. After a fierce battle, he managed to repel the breakthrough of the Polish units under the command of the cavalier Novodvorsky. Having lost 130 people in this case, the Poles retreated. Their attack on the Tver Gate also did not bring success.

Truce of Deulino (1618). After an unsuccessful assault, negotiations began, and soon the opponents, weary of the struggle (the Poles were then at war with Turkey and were already starting a new clash with Sweden), concluded the Deulino truce for fourteen and a half years. According to its terms, Poland left behind a number of Russian territories captured by it: Smolensk, Novgorod-Seversky and Chernigov lands.

EDUCATIONAL TABLE for children and adults

@ Compiled by N.M. Mikhailov. 1990

FOUR INVASIONS OF EUROPEANS ON RUSSIA

Studying the history of the Patriotic War of 1812, I involuntarily compared its course and results with other Patriotic Wars, namely, 1612, 1914 and 1941. At the same time, despite the difference in the political situation, in military tactics and technology, a lot of similarities were found between these invasions of "civilizers". Therefore, it seemed interesting to me to give a comparative history of 4 wars at once. The results of this comparison are shown in the diagram in the form of several key positions.

« AGGRESSOR»: Here, in addition to the name of the conqueror, his actions are indicated BEFORE invasion. In the last three campaigns, the aggressor had already conquered Europe, but each time the Western (second) front remained in its rear (Napoleon had Spain). Sigismund did not conquer Europe, but he also had a “second front”, since he was at war with Sweden, which became an ally of Russia for a while.

« PACT (alliance-conspiracy) with the aggressor”: After the aggressor conquered Europe, Russia concluded an alliance with him on two occasions: with Napoleon in Tilsit in 1807 and a non-aggression pact with Hitler in 1939. Two other “Pacts”, before the wars in 1612 and in 1914, can be called such with some stretch.

« ACQUISITIONS” as compensation for an alliance with the aggressor.

« NEW ALLIES».

« THE BEGINNING OF THE INVASION”, the dates, number of troops and its national composition are indicated.

ARROWS:"aggressive" black arrows show the main directions along which the enemy armies were advancing to the East. And the white arrows show the movement of Russian troops to the West.

Cities are indicated on the way to Moscow: SMOLENSK, VYAZMA, Mozhaisk, as well as places pitched battle”, Deciding for the further course of the campaign (or the capture of Moscow):

Klushino in 1612, Borodino in 1812, Sventsyany in 1915, Moscow in 1941. Wherever possible, dates and numbers of troops are given.

Return trip the exiled aggressor (1612 and 1812) and the path of the Russian Army across Europe (1813-1815 and 1944-45) with the subsequent capture of the capitals (Warsaw, Paris and Berlin).

Now I will briefly talk about each INVASION.

1) B 1605 - 1612 came to Russia POLE, LITHUANIA AND SWEDE. Moscow was not taken by the enemy, but voluntarily SUPPLIED to him by the ruling elite twice: in 1605 - the impostor Tsar Dmitry I with the Poles and in 1610 - Polish troops Tsar Vladislav Sigismundovich, elected by the boyars. When studying these campaigns, it must be borne in mind that the western border of the Moscow Kingdom was much closer to Moscow than in the 19th and 20th centuries, and therefore it took less time to get to it. In the first case, the enemy crossed the border October 16 1604 from 1500 Cossacks and gentry and moved from the South-West, through Chernigov, which the tsarist governors surrendered to him, and Novgorod-Seversky, where the rabble gathered by the Pretender defeated 50 thousandth royal army, soon ( May 7, 1605.) who swore allegiance to him near Kromy. In the second case, hetman Zholkiewski, sent by the Polish king Sigismund IV, crossed the border west of Smolensk and September 8, 1609 began to besiege it, but he managed to take it only after 9 months, in June 1611. Only then did he move to Moscow, and at s. Klushino (near Vyazma) there was a "general battle" (analogous to Borodino), where the tsarist troops were defeated. Which is not surprising, because the boyars have already betrayed their Tsar. July 17, 1610 (exactly 300 years before the assassination royal family In Ekaterinburg) subjects deposed Vasily Shuisky from the throne, and the next day, July 18, forcibly tonsured he became a monk and imprisoned in the Joseph-Volotsky Monastery. Zholkievsky reached Moscow without hindrance, the Poles occupied the Kremlin, and On August 27, 1611, the boyars swore allegiance to Prince Vladislav.

Both the arrival of the Pretender and the march of the hetman's 3,000 troops were carried out with the knowledge of the boyars, moreover, thanks to them. COLLUSION with the enemy, that is, treason. The fact of such a conspiracy is known, and it is he who explains the ease with which Moscow was captured, captured and desecrated. The situation was aggravated by the fact that the country there was no legitimate government and any regular army , and the inhabitants of the outskirts became allies of the invaders: Zaporozhye and Don Cossacks, gentry and Novgorodians who dreamed of freedom under the rule of Poland or Sweden. However, in spite of everything, in the end, the invaders were expelled by the forces People's Militia, statehood was restored, and immediately after the war, the restoration of the economy and the strengthening of the army began. The terms of the peace treaties concluded with Poland and Sweden were unfavorable for Russia (I had to give Smolensk to the Poles). But after 40 years, Russia annexed the Left-bank Little Russia and returned its Western lands up to Vilna. However, it was possible to “take revenge” for the Polish-Lithuanian ruin only in the 18th century.

Unnumbered invasion of the Swedes 1709, when Charles XII moved to Moscow, but then changed his mind and went to Little Russia, tempted by the advantages that presented him in connection with the betrayal of Hetman Mazepa. The invasion of the SWEDS, thus, violated the classical scheme (border - general battle - Moscow),

2) 1812 - 1815 Two circumstances are considered to be the causes of the war: one was connected with the interests ruling dynasty, and the other - with the interests of English trade, but neither one nor the other had anything to do with the "national interests" of Russia. Alexander I's ally, Napoleon, during the conquest of Europe, captured the Oldenburg principality, which belonged to the closest relatives of the Holstein Emperor Alexander I. Send the Russian Army to Oldenburg to return the seized property was not possible. Then in St. Petersburg they remembered the continental blockade, the main condition for an alliance with Napoleon, and decided, in punishment for the capture of Oldenburg, to abandon the blockade and open ports for trade with England. Thus, economic war between the merchants of France and England was transferred to the territory of Russia and was carried out here by military means.

Napoleon used the peoples of the countries he conquered as manpower, and Alexander I, wanting to liberate Oldenburg, gave England the opportunity to use the Russian army to achieve its goals. Although the war was started FRENCH PEOPLE, however, most of this army was made up of different GERMANS(Prussians, Bavarians, Saxons, Westphalians, Badens, Württembergers) and other allies of France, some voluntary (as POLES), other forced (like AUSTRIANS, DUTCH, ITALIAN and especially, SPANISH). Napoleon considered his campaign in Russia as an intermediate stage for further advancement to the colonial possessions of England in India. That is why he did not go to the northern capital of St. Petersburg, but to the capital city of Moscow, through which the path to India lay. At the time of the invasion, Napoleon's army was 443 thousand people with 860 guns.

Petersburg did not know in which direction Napoleon would move, and therefore, just in case, they dispersed their forces in three places. Total population 1st Army Barclay (130 thousand), 2nd Army Bagration (50 thousand) and the 3rd Army of Tormasov (40 thousand) was 220 thousand people, and the guns were 888 . The numerical superiority of the enemy was obvious, but it did not decide the outcome of the first months of the campaign, but the fact that the armies of Barclay and Bagration could not quickly connect. The war has begun June 11 (22), 1812, i.e on the same day, when and the second Patriotic in 1941. Barclay and Bagration united near Smolensk, but did not have time to gain a foothold and continued to retreat to Tsarevo-Zaimishche where it was decided to give a pitched battle. By this time, in St. Petersburg, those Masons, whose creature was M.I. Kutuzov. Instead of Barclay, Alexander I was forced to appoint as Commander-in-Chief a person whom he did not trust and who had "his own political goals" that did not coincide with the goals of the Emperor. The retreat continued under Kutuzov, then a bloody battle took place at Borodino, the surrender of Moscow to Napoleon, the withdrawal of Kutuzov's army along the Ryazan road, his "brilliant maneuver" with the transition to Tarutino, Napoleon's campaign to Maloyaroslavets and the return to the Smolensk-Mozhaisk road.

Kutuzov was not in the rearguard of the retreating enemy army, but in a parallel course 50 km to the south, and categorically refused any major military operations to encircle Napoleon. He was given this opportunity at least three times: Maloyaroslavets at the very beginning of the path; near Smolensk, near Krasnoe and finally near the Berezina, where additional forces were sent by Alexander: the Wittgenstein corps (40 thousand people + 150 guns) and the corps of Admiral Chichagov (30 thousand people + 180 guns). Of the three participants in the operation, one Chichagov arrived at the scene and began to wait for Napoleon near the city of Borisov. Wittgenstein got stuck in Chashniki before reaching the Berezina, and Kutuzov had no intention of catching up and capturing Napoleon. As a result, Napoleon crossed the Berezina with 35 thousand people. and immediately went to Paris, where he energetically began to collect new army. He collected it, and the war dragged on for another two years.

3) 1914 – 1918 . Motives for starting this war also had nothing to do with the "national interests" of our state. The ruling circles of England, France and Germany started another redistribution of the world and for many years were preparing for war. Russian Emperor Nicholas II first entered into an alliance with one relative, the German Emperor Wilhelm, but then changed his mind and entered into an alliance with another relative, English king George, and at the same time with the President of the French Republic, Poincaré. Georg, Poincare and Nicholas called their military alliance the Triple Entente (Entente), and Germany, Austria and Italy united in the Triple Alliance. The United States at that time had not yet acquired the status of hegemon and acted independently of the Europeans.

In this war, Germany fought on two fronts in Europe (with France in the West and with Russia in the East). Turkey entered the war on Germany's side. The Russians fought with it in the Caucasus, and the British fought in Asia Minor and the Middle East. As a result of this war, three empires perished at once: Russian, German and Austro-Hungarian. political map Europe was radically redrawn, almost in full accordance with the plans of the Entente, with the exception of one unpleasant circumstance: instead of the Russian parliamentary republic conceived by the leaders of the Entente, in place of the overthrown monarchy, an unforeseen Soviet Republic. The new rulers made peace with the unfinished Germany, which caused discontent among the allies of the former Tsar Nicholas II.

They had to fight for another three years with this new state, both on their own (through intervention) and the forces of the White armies, headed by the former tsarist generals. But this was already the story of another war, and the one that is called the First World War turned out to be unfinished and therefore, after 20 years, it was continued under the name of the Second World War. But for us, as always, it was Patriotic.

4) 1941-45. But what happened in 1941-45? The generals of the Red Army partly consisted of Tsarist officers who had betrayed the Emperor. Why shouldn't they betray the tyrant Stalin, especially since "the old friendship does not rust" and through the channels of the Tsar's General Staff, the "Red" General Staff officers did not have to contact the "Whites". After all, those who betrayed the Emperor, in the era of the Revolution, were distributed approximately equally on both sides of the front. The White movement, the leaders of which tore apart the Russian Empire into "directories" and "republics", like hungry predators tear their prey. They did this with the money of the Entente, for the sake of the Entente and in gratitude they took Russia's gold reserves there. Many of them went into exile, and that's when the next, fourth INVASION, The “knights” declared Hitler their Leader and moved to Russia in the wagon train of the next Great Army.

Of the ones I have chosen and shown in the diagram INVASIONS in general terms are most similar two Patriotic Wars of 1812 and 1941. Compared with them, the war of 1914 looks the most successful, because the enemy could not even reach Smolensk. In 1812 and in 1941, Napoleon and Hitler started the war on the same day, June 22. Almost the same day October 16 -19, can be considered the beginning of the retreat. But Moscow surrendered to Napoleon in 1812 without a fight and in 1941 for Moscow such a battle unfolded that it can be considered the main event of this war. Moscow was defended, though. Undoubtedly, the enemy was more powerful both technically and numerically.

Let's summarize. Peter brought up by foreigners Great start Great Reform, which was part of the Great Colonial War of Europe against Russia. Freemasonization ruling class allowed, with the help of palace coups, to put a new Holstein-Gottorp dynasty. Its representatives (Germans by blood) continued the work begun by Peter on the "unification" of Russia, wanting to make it in everything similar to their "cultural homeland", Europe, but they did not at all intend to give up political independence of the country that they got into control. Just like Norman, Angevin ( french) and later Hanoverian (German) dynasties in England were “britishized” and defended the interests of the British Empire, so the Varangians Rurikovich “Russified” and created the Moscow Kingdom, and in the same way the Holstein emperors turned into “Russians” and fought for expansion Russian Empire. Whatever they undertake (reforms or wars), they declared in their manifestos that they were doing it “in the name of the people”, “for the good of Russia”, its “national interests”. But in real life existed different class interests as for the national ones, they appeared only during foreign aggression, and then not always, not everywhere and not immediately after its start.

So it was in the Time of Troubles, the same thing was observed in subsequent Patriotic wars. We can say that each time the power structures were part of AGREEMENT with the aggressor, that is, concluded with him alliance treaty and received compensation for this, either political, as was the case at the beginning of the 17th century, or territorial, as was the case in 1807 and 1939. Then they entered COLLUSION with another "ally", who inevitably also became an aggressor. So it was with the Swedes in the Time of Troubles, with the Entente in 1914 and with the same Entente in the middle of the century, when the West immediately after the war began “ cold war» against the USSR. For this kind of fraud, there is DIPLOMACY with permanently accredited embassies allowing both spying and influencing internal politics their competitors.

Every time, the invasion caused by mistakes or treason by the forces of one army could not be immediately stopped. Only then did a turning point come when, in defense of not an abstract "Russia", but its own HOMELAND people stood up, sensing mortal danger. In 1605 and in 1611 years the boyars changed twice their Sovereign, and both times they entered COLLUSION with the Poles, and Tsar Vasily Shuisky in 1608 entered COLLUSION with the Swedes, who immediately grabbed the entire North-West and would have kept it for themselves if not for popular resistance. AT 1689 Tsar Peter I entered COLLUSION with foreigners, Bruce, Gordon and Lefort, and with their help seized the throne, not wanting to share it with the legitimate heir John Alekseevich and the ruler Sophia. As a result, he became their hostage, and began "peaceful invasion" of foreigners who crushed all of Russia under them. In 1708-09 Hetman Mazepa entered the COLLUSION with Charles XI, betraying Peter I. By that time, the Germans had moved the capital, inconvenient for maritime trade, to the mouth of the Dvina and built models of Amsterdam, Geneva, and Strasbourg, dear to their hearts. The army, the Senate, the Colleges were ruled by foreigners, but there was no question of war with them, because the aggressor was already sitting on the throne.

CAPITAL HUMANITARIAN INSTITUTE

Faculty: public service and finance.

Specialty: finance and credit.

ESSAY

Subject: Domestic history.

Topic: Stages of the Troubles: from False Dmitry I to the Polish intervention.

3rd year student

Afanasiev Dmitry Vladimirovich

Murmansk 2005

Work plan:

Introduction………………………………………………………………..3

§one. False Dmitry I…………………………………………………………4

§2. The Rebellion of Ivan Bolotnikov………………………………………8

§3. Polish-Lithuanian intervention…………………………………….9

§4. People's militias. Expulsion of the Poles……………...………...10

§5. End of the Time of Troubles……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Conclusion…………………………………………………………….12

Bibliographic list……………………………………………..14

Introduction.

In the second half of the 16th century, special circumstances, external and internal, contributed to the intensification of the crisis in the Muscovite state. The Livonian War, which lasted 25 years and ended in complete failure, demanded huge sacrifices from the population in people and material resources. The Tatar invasion and the defeat of Moscow in 1571 significantly increased casualties and losses. The oprichnina of Tsar Ivan the Terrible, which shook and shook the old way of life and habitual relationships, increased the general discord and demoralization. Masses of peasants left for new lands from fortresses and state burdens. The exploitation of the rest intensified. The farmers were entangled in debts and duties. The more people left, the harder the government of Boris Godunov put pressure on those who remained. By 1592, the compilation of scribe books was completed, where the names of peasants and townspeople, owners of yards were entered. The authorities, having conducted a census, could organize the search and return of the fugitives. In 1592-1593, a royal decree was issued on the abolition of the peasant exit even on St. George's Day. This measure extended not only to the owner's peasants, but also to the state, as well as to the townspeople. In 1597, two more decrees appeared, according to the first, any free person (free servant, worker) who worked for six months for the landowner turned into a bonded serf and did not have the right to redeem himself for freedom. According to the second, a five-year period was set for the search and return of the runaway peasant to the owner. The desires of the nobility were fulfilled. But social tension from this did not weaken, but only grew. There were great contradictions between the Moscow privileged and the outlying, especially the southern, nobility. Made up of fugitive peasants and other free people, the Cossacks were a combustible material in society: firstly, many had blood grievances against the state, and secondly, they were people whose main occupation was war and robbery. There were strong intrigues between various groups of boyars. At the same time, the Polish and Lithuanian feudal lords tried to use internal contradictions in Russia in order to weaken Russian state and maintained ties with the opposition to Boris Godunov. They sought to seize the Smolensk lands, which a century earlier were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Catholic Church, by introducing Catholicism in Russia, wanted to replenish the sources of income. The Commonwealth did not have a direct reason for open intervention. All this eventually led the state to a serious crisis.

The purpose of this work is to show what impact the Time of Troubles had on the further development of Russia.

To achieve this goal, the following tasks were set:

Consider the stages of the development of the Troubles;

Assess the behavior of the Russian people in the current situation.

The subject of this work is the time interval of the late 16th and early 17th centuries, later called the Time of Troubles.

The object of the research is the history of the Time of Troubles in Russia.

§one. False Dmitry I.

After the death of Ivan the Terrible, his son Fyodor ascended the throne. Unlike his father, he had a mild disposition, was, in the words of his contemporaries, a “meek” king. But Fedor Ivanovich did not like state affairs at all, he quickly got tired of them. He preferred to spend time in church, in quiet conversations, in peace. The main state concerns and power along with this passed to the brother-in-law (brother of the wife) of the Tsar Boris Godunov. The sovereign was very fond of his wife Irina, and Godunov, in turn, had a sister big influence. Thus, the boyar Godunov acquired exceptional influence in the kingdom. The power of Boris Godunov, in addition to his personal qualities, was mainly based on kinship with the tsar's wife. Meanwhile, Fedor and Irina had no children, and among the nobility there were constant demands for the dissolution of this childless marriage. The tsar himself and, of course, especially Godunov opposed this in every possible way. The childless Fyodor was to be succeeded by the youngest son of Ivan the Terrible, Dmitry. A great danger to the power of Boris Godunov was represented by the boyars Nagiye, relatives of the young Tsarevich Dmitry. Dmitry was expelled from Moscow to Uglich, which was declared his destiny. Uglich soon turned into an opposition center. The boyars were waiting for the death of Tsar Fedor in order to push Godunov out of power and rule on behalf of the young prince. However, in 1591, Tsarevich Dmitry died under mysterious circumstances. The circumstances of this case are not entirely clear. Official version said that the prince, in a fit of epilepsy (which his father awarded him), fell on a knife and stabbed himself. The commission of inquiry, led by the boyar Vasily Shuisky, concluded that it was an accident. But the opposition began to vigorously spread rumors about a deliberate murder on the orders of the ruler. Later, a version appeared that another boy was killed, and the prince escaped and is waiting for adulthood in order to return and punish the “villain”.

At the beginning of the 17th century, an unprecedented famine broke out in the country, the epidemics that followed the famine claimed the lives of hundreds of thousands of people. All this aggravated the already great contradictions between the people and the king. The people associated the disasters of the country with the murder of Dmitry and the unrighteous accession of Godunov. It was at this time that the first impostor appeared, posing as Tsarevich Dmitry. His name was Grigory Otrepiev. He was a monk of the Chudov Monastery and fled from there to the Cossacks. There he acquired the necessary skill. Then he showed up in Poland, got into the confidence of the nobility, in particular Pan Mniszek, and, pretending to be mortally ill, revealed the secret in confession that he was miraculously saved Tsarevich Dmitry. The adventure fell on the right soil: in Poland there were enough hunters to help Dmitry return the rightful throne, especially since the prince promised three boxes to Mnishek, and King Sigismund III, and the churchmen. In the autumn of 1604, the impostor, whom historians call False Dmitry I, with a 40,000-strong detachment of the Polish-Lithuanian gentry, Russian emigrant nobles, Zaporozhye and Don Cossacks, unexpectedly appeared on the southwestern outskirts of Russia. There were many runaway peasants and serfs in his army, who joined the impostor in droves. They saw in “Tsarevich Dmitry” their “protector”, especially since the impostor did not skimp on promises. The belief in a “good tsar” inherent in the medieval peasantry helped False Dmitry I to increase his army. However, in the very first big battle with the tsarist army led by Prince F.I. Mstislavsky near Dobrynichy, the impostor was defeated and, with the few remaining supporters, took refuge in Putivl. Most of the Polish-Lithuanian gentry left him. However, a broad popular movement against Boris Godunov was already unfolding on the southern outskirts. One by one, the southern cities went over to the side of “Tsarevich Dmitry”. Detachments of Cossacks approached from the Don. And the actions of the tsarist army were extremely slow and indecisive - the boyars-voivodes were preparing a betrayal of Boris Godunov, hoping to use an impostor to topple the tsar. All this allowed False Dmitry I to recover from defeat. In the Russian outlying lands, he met with strong support from the Cossacks, the southern nobles, who were unhappy with the dominance of the Moscow nobles. Many of the people really wanted to believe that this was the real king, because then everything was easily explained: both the oppression of the people, and hard life and hunger and so on. Not averse to seizing the opportunity were many boyars dissatisfied with Godunov. Popular support was so great that he again recovered to Moscow. The cities swore allegiance to him. And then suddenly Godunov died. Godunov's sixteen-year-old son, Tsar Fyodor Borisovich, did not long remain on the throne. He had neither experience nor authority. On May 7, the tsarist army went over to the side of False Dmitry. On June 1, 1605, the boyars-conspirators organized coup d'état and provoked popular indignation in the capital. Tsar Fedor was dethroned and strangled along with his mother. The impostor entered Moscow without a fight and was proclaimed tsar under the name of Dmitry Ivanovich. He was “recognized” by Tsarina Maria Nagaya, who had previously been exiled to a monastery, the mother of the murdered Dmitry. But False Dmitry did not last long on the throne. His very first events destroyed the hopes for a “good and just king.” The feudal aristocracy that initiated the appearance of the impostor no longer needed him. Wide layers of Russian feudal lords were dissatisfied with the privileged position of the Polish and Lithuanian gentry, who surrounded the throne, received huge rewards, money for which was withdrawn even from the monastery treasury. The Orthodox Church followed with concern the attempts to spread Catholicism in Russia. False Dmitry wanted to start a war against Turkey, which Russia did not need. They were also dissatisfied with “Tsar Dmitry” in the Commonwealth. He refused, as he had promised earlier, to transfer Western Russian cities to Poland and Lithuania. The new conspiracy was preceded by the wedding of False Dmitry with Marina Minshek, the daughter of a Lithuanian magnate. The Catholic was crowned with the royal crown of the Orthodox state. In addition to this, violence and robberies began among the roaming gentry who had come to the wedding. On May 17, 1606, the boyar Vasily Shuisky, at the head of a large detachment of military servants, broke into the Kremlin and killed the impostor. From the Execution Ground on Red Square, he was proclaimed the new tsar.

The accession of Vasily Shuisky did not stop the turmoil. The new king relied on a narrow circle of people close to him. Even within the Boyar Duma, he had ill-wishers who themselves claimed the throne (the Romanovs, Golitsyns, Mstislavskys). Shuisky was not popular with the nobility either. The populace received no relief. Vasily Shuisky even canceled the tax benefits given by the impostor to the population of the southern counties. The persecution of the former supporters of “Tsar Dmitry” began, which further inflamed the situation. The people continued to stubbornly hold on to the rumor about the miraculous salvation of Dmitry, that, once again reigning in Moscow, he would alleviate his situation.

§2. Rebellion of Ivan Bolotnikov.

In the movement against the "boyar tsar" Vasily Shuisky, various sections of the population were involved: the lower classes, the nobility, part of the boyars. It was they who took part in the uprising of Ivan Bolotnikov in 1606-1607. Bolotnikov was a serf of Prince Telyatevsky, fled to the Cossacks, was one of the chieftains of the Volga Cossack freemen, was captured by the Tatars and was sold into slavery in Turkey, was a galley rower, participant naval battles, was liberated by the Italians. The basis of his troops were Cossacks, fugitives, the urban poor, the remnants of the army of the first impostor, the Cossacks called from the Don, and the archers of the border garrisons. He was also supported by the noble detachments of P. Lyapunov and I. Pashkov, who were dissatisfied with the government. Bolotnikov pretended to be the governor of Tsar Dmitry and demanded that Shuisky be replaced by “good Tsar Dmitry”. In August 1606, Bolotnikov inflicted a series of defeats on the tsarist governors, and in the fall his army approached Moscow and settled in the village of Kolomenskoye. But the noble detachments soon went over to the side of the tsar and in December 1606, in a decisive battle, the tsarist troops defeated Bolotnikov. Bolotnikov, with the remnants of his army, took refuge first in Kaluga, and then in Tula, where he held out until October 1607, repulsing the attacks of the tsarist army. Finally, exhausted by a long siege and hunger, the defenders of Tula surrendered. Ivan Bolotnikov was exiled to Kargopol, where he was blinded and drowned.

Objectively, the movement of Ivan Bolotnikov weakened the Russian state and prepared the conditions for the introduction of a second impostor into Russia, who used the direct help of the Polish-Lithuanian gentry.

§3. Polish-Lithuanian intervention.

The intervention of the Polish-Lithuanian state of the Commonwealth in the affairs of Russia began with the advent of Grigory Otrepyev. After his overthrow, detachments of Poles, Lithuanians and Ukrainian Cossacks began to support False Dmitry II, who showed up in Starodub in the summer of 1607, when the tsarist troops besieged Tula. His origin is unknown, he pretended to be the surviving Tsar Dmitry (False Dmitry I). In June 1608, False Dmitry II with his army approached Moscow, could not take it and stopped in a fortified camp in Tushino (hence his nickname - “Tushinsky Thief”). Many nobles and government officials who were dissatisfied with Shuisky's rule moved to Tushino. Soon a large army of the Lithuanian hetman Jan Sapieha also came there. The participation of the Commonwealth in the events of unrest became more and more obvious. A significant part of the country fell under the rule of the impostor and his Polish-Lithuanian allies. A dual power was established in the country. In fact, there were two tsars in Russia, two boyar dumas. Shuisky, not having sufficient support within the country and trying to put an end to False Dmitry II, agreed with the Swedes, in exchange for some territories (the city of Korelu and others), about military aid. In the summer of 1609, Russian regiments and Swedish mercenaries began offensive action, but the Swedes only reached Tver and refused to advance further. The tsar's nephew, Mikhail Skopin-Shuisky, with some Russian regiments, launched an offensive against the Tushins. Soon he defeated Hetman Sapega and in March 1610 the regiments of Mikhail Skopin-Shuisky approached Moscow, after which the “Tushino camp” fled.

The decision of Tsar Vasily Shuisky to call on foreigners for help cost Russia dearly. The Polish king Sigismund III, who at that time was at enmity with Sweden, took this as a convenient pretext for starting an open war. In the summer, the Poles began aggression and laid siege to Smolensk. Heroic Defense Smolensk was able to detain the main forces of the royal army for almost two years. However, in the summer of 1610, a strong Polish-Lithuanian detachment of Hetman Zholkovsky moved towards Moscow and defeated the Russian troops that had come out to meet him. The military defeat led to the fall of Vasily Shuisky, and in Moscow there was palace coup. On July 17, 1610, the boyars and nobles, led by Zakhar Lyapunov, overthrew V. Shuisky from the throne. Tsar Vasily Shuisky was forcibly tonsured a monk. Power passed to the government of the seven boyars - the “seven boyars”. Having learned about the coup, "Tushinsky Thief" again moved with his supporters to Moscow. Under these conditions, the "seven boyars", which had no support in the country, went to direct national treason: in August 1610, the boyars let the Polish garrison into Moscow. The actual power was in the hands of the Polish commandant Pan Gonsevsky. King Sigismund III openly announced his claims to the Russian throne. An open Polish-Lithuanian intervention began. The gentry detachments left the “Tushinsky thief”. The impostor fled to Kaluga, where he was soon killed. Russia was threatened with the loss of national independence. The events that took place caused deep dissatisfaction among all classes of the Russian state.

§4. People's militias. Expulsion of the Poles.

Russia found itself in a desperate situation. Without a king, with Polish invaders in the capital, ruined by numerous foreigners and gangs. This led to the emergence of a national liberation movement against the interventionists. The Duma nobleman Prokopy Lyapunov, who had long fought against the supporters of the “Tushinsky Thief”, became the head of the first militia. He was joined by the Ryazan nobles, as well as detachments of the Cossacks of Ataman Ivan Zarutsky and Prince Dmitry Trubetskoy. In the spring of 1611, the militia approached Moscow. A popular uprising broke out in the city against the interventionists, during which the Poles set fire to the city, and it completely burned out. The Polish garrison took refuge behind the walls of Kitay-gorod, as well as the Kremlin, and the siege began. But soon disagreements and a struggle for primacy began between the leaders of the Russian militia. Ivan Zarutsky and Dmitry Trubetskoy organized the murder of Prokopy Lyapunov. After that, the nobles began to leave the camp. The first militia actually disintegrated.

Meanwhile, the situation became even more complicated. After the fall of Smolensk, the Polish-Lithuanian army was freed up for a big campaign against Russia. King Sigismund III now hoped to seize the Russian throne by force. However, a new rise in the national liberation struggle of the Russian people prevented him from doing this, since the formation of a second militia began in Nizhny Novgorod. The organizer of the militia was Kuzma Minin, the “zemstvo headman,” who appealed to the people of Nizhny Novgorod not to spare either themselves or their property in order to help the Muscovite state. Kuzma Minin also played a decisive role in choosing the military leader of the militia, which was Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. In August 1612, after a heavy battle, the militia drove the Poles out of Moscow and locked up their garrison in the Kremlin and Kitay-Gorod. After a two-month siege, the invaders, exhausted by hunger, surrendered. Although the ruined and ruined capital was liberated, it still took a long time to liberate the country. Detachments of Polish and Lithuanian gentry roamed all over the country. They robbed on the roads, plundered villages and villages, captured even cities, disrupting the normal life of the country.

§5. End of the Time of Troubles.

The primary issue after the expulsion of the Poles from Moscow was the question of restoring central power, that is, it was necessary to elect a new king. The Zemsky Sobor met in Moscow, very broad in its composition. After long disputes, the members of the cathedral agreed on the candidacy of 16-year-old Mikhail Romanov, the cousin-nephew of the last tsar from the Moscow Rurik dynasty, Fyodor Ivanovich. This candidacy suited everyone, since the new king and his entourage were able to persevere and calmly carry out restoration work. In the first years of the reign of Mikhail Romanov, the country was actually ruled by the boyars Saltykovs, and since 1619, after the return of the father of the tsar, Patriarch Filaret Romanov from captivity, the patriarch and “great sovereign” Filaret. In 1617, an "eternal peace" was signed with Sweden, according to which the Swedes retained the Izhora land and Korela. Russia lost access to the Baltic Sea, but she managed to get out of the state of war with Sweden. In 1618, a truce was concluded with Poland for fourteen and a half years. Russia lost Smolensk and about three dozen more Smolensk, Chernigov and Seversk cities. The terms of the armistice were very difficult for the country, but Poland refused to claim the throne. As a result of all this, it could be considered that Time of Troubles finished in Russia.

Conclusion.

The Time of Troubles taught an important lesson to the Russian people. The call of Kozma Minin -

not to seek personal benefits, but to give everything to a common cause - had a response from the majority ordinary people, symbolizing the turn of society towards a moral civic principle. The people, having suffered from the riots, gathered a militia with their last money to restore calm in the country, took the fate of the state into their own hands. During the Time of Troubles, the people, saving the state, discovered such a wealth of moral strength and such strength of their historical and civil foundations that it was impossible to imagine in it.

The Russian people, in the face of the catastrophe, having gathered their strength, recreated the ruined state, clearly showing that it is not a royal estate, but an object of common concern and the common cause of all cities and all Russian people.

Bibliographic list.

1. Lichman M.Ya. History of Russia - Textbook.

2. Fedorov V.A. Russian history.

3. Karamzin N.M. "History of Russian Goverment".