Lexicography is the main types of German dictionaries. Lexicography as a branch of linguistics. Theoretical and practical lexicography

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Introduction

Lexicography (gr. Lexikon - dictionary + grapho - I write) - a section of linguistics that deals with the compilation of dictionaries and their study. The science that studies the semantic structure of a word, the features of words, their interpretation. Thus, lexicography is a scientific technique and the art of compiling dictionaries, practical use lexicology, which is extremely important both for the practice of reading foreign literature and learning a foreign language, and for understanding one's own language in its present and past.

A dictionary is a collection of words organized in a certain way, usually with comments attributed to them, which describe the features of their structure and / or functioning.

Most often, the semantic (semantic) structure of words is commented, i.e., explanations (interpretations) of their meanings and use are compared to words in the dictionary, but many other types of comments are also possible.

In addition to words, the objects of the dictionary description can be their components (for example, dictionaries of morphemes), phrases of various types, stable maxims - proverbs, sayings, quotations, etc.

There are also dictionaries in which there are no special comments for each unit of the dictionary description.

In another sense, the term "dictionary" refers to the entire set of words of a certain language (in other words, its vocabulary) and is opposed to the term "grammar", which refers to the set of rules for constructing more complex language expressions from words.

One of the main questions of lexicography is, of course, the question of different types of dictionaries.

All of the above confirms the relevance of the topic.

The work consists of an introduction, the main part and a list of references.

Types of dictionaries of Russian lexicography

The types of dictionaries are very diverse, determined by the basic information that it contains, its general purpose. First of all, there are two main types of dictionaries: these are linguistic (or philological) dictionaries and encyclopedic dictionaries. AT encyclopedic dictionary describes reality(that is, any object, phenomenon, historical fact), and in linguistic dictionary explains, describes word calling this reality.

There are also intermediate varieties of dictionaries. In addition, any dictionary can be classified as either "general" or "special".

Encyclopedic, in which a description of a particular phenomenon, concept, event, etc. is given. (depending on the volume and addressee of the dictionary, a more or less detailed scientific information). There are many entries in encyclopedic dictionaries in which proper names are the heading word. Encyclopedic dictionaries include encyclopedias, scientific reference books that provide information on any branch of knowledge, terminological dictionaries.

Besides, encyclopedic dictionaries divided into universal (for example, "Brief Russian Encyclopedia", "Children's Encyclopedia", "Big Schoolchild Encyclopedic Dictionary") and industry-specific (for example, the encyclopedia "Russian language", "Encyclopedic dictionary of a young philologist", encyclopedic dictionary "Linguistics"). Encyclopedic dictionaries include: "The Great Soviet Encyclopedia"; "Medical Encyclopedia"; "Short Literary Encyclopedia", etc.

An example of a dictionary entry from an encyclopedic dictionary: marmots, a genus of mammals of this family. squirrels. Body length up to 60 cm, tail less than 1/2 body length. 13 species, in the North. hemispheres (excluding deserts and tundras); in Russia there are several types. Object of trade (fur, fat, meat). They may be carriers of the plague pathogen. Some species are rare and protected.

Llinguisticallye- first of all, sensible ones, which describe linguistic meanings. Linguistic dictionaries contain interpretations of words (the main meanings are indicated, direct and figurative), grammatical, stylistic and other marks are given. An example of a dictionary entry from a linguistic dictionary: marmot, - p to a, m. - a small rodent of this family. squirrel, living in burrows and hibernating in winter.

A clear idea of ​​the difference between the encyclopedic and linguistic dictionaries can be given by comparing two explanatory articles corresponding to the title word.

Big encyclopedic dictionary of a schoolboy, comp. A.P. Gorkin	Dictionary of the Russian language SI. Ozhegova, edited by S.P. Obnorsky
Lord(English) lord), in medieval England, originally a landowner (lord of the manor, landlord), then the collective title of the English high nobility; assigned to the peers of the kingdom, forming the House of Lords of the British Parliament. Since the 19th century the title of lord complains also to representatives of other social groups, workers of science, culture.	Lord, -a, m. In England: the highest title of nobility. House of Lords(Upper House of the British Parliament). Lord Chancellor(President of the House of Lords). Lord Mayor(mayor of major cities in England).

Diverse and numerous types of linguistic dictionaries: explanatory dictionaries; synonym dictionaries; dictionaries foreign words; dictionaries of speech correctness; phraseological dictionaries; spelling dictionaries; spelling dictionaries; dialect dictionaries; etymological dictionaries; word-building dictionaries, etc.

Linguistic (philological) dictionaries are divided into multilingual, bilingual and monolingual. Bilingual and multilingual dictionaries are translation dictionaries, in which the meanings of words of one language are explained by comparison with another language (for example, dictionaries English-Russian, Russian-English, Russian-English-Arabic, etc.).

In monolingual dictionaries, words are explained by means of words of the same language. Monolingual dictionaries are complex and aspect . Comprehensive are explanatory dictionaries. Such dictionaries provide information necessary for understanding the word, its use in speech, etc. Aspect Dictionaries reflect one or another aspect of the language. These include: dictionaries of foreign words, synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, paronyms, phraseological, orthoepic, orthographic, derivational, morphemic, etymological, reverse, abbreviations and other types of dictionaries.

The most important type monolingual linguistic dictionary is Tolkovy dictionary.

The task of explanatory dictionaries, first of all, is to reflect the active vocabulary of the language of a certain period. Explanatory dictionaries explain the meaning of words and their shades, give a grammatical description of words, give stylistic marks, give instructions on the pronunciation of words and spelling, and also illustrate the use of words both in free and in phraseological phrases.

The first explanatory dictionary of the Russian language was " Dictionary of the Russian Academy"(1789-1794). A significant event in the history of Russian lexicography was the creation of a four-volume " Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language» V.I. Dalya (1863-1866). V.I.Dal worked on the dictionary for 53 years, the dictionary was based on folk speech, and common and dialect vocabulary was also included. In total, the dictionary contains about 200 thousand words and 30 thousand proverbs. Dahl explained many words related to folk rituals, customs, and beliefs:

sightings- "the first acquaintance of the groom with the bride";

autumn- "seeing off summer and meeting autumn";

handshake- "rite of passage of marriage."

In the Dictionary you can find the words of the secret language of wandering pedlars: voxari- "firewood", mold- "handkerchief", gibberish- "mittens"

Dahl believed that the literary language of his day was too saturated with the West, so you need to turn to the living vernacular and develop on its basis a literary one. The words in the dictionary are located in alpha-nested okay. With such a distribution of material, finding some words is difficult, since individual articles contain more than 100 words. The use of words is illustrated by stable phrases, proverbs, sayings, riddles (only about 30 thousand proverbs and sayings).

Among the explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language of the Soviet era, the first place on merit belongs to the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, edited by Professor Dmitry Nikolaevich Ushakov. This dictionary is the normative dictionary of modern literary language. Its normativity is clearly reflected in the indications about the meaning of the word, its grammatical properties, expressive and stylistic qualities, spelling and literary pronunciation. There are 85289 words in the dictionary.

Currently, the dictionary is edited by D.N. Ushakov is largely outdated. Based on the Dictionary of D.N. Ushakov created one-volume "Dictionary of the Russian language" Sergei Ivanovich Ozhegov. The dictionary includes about 57 thousand of the most common words of the modern Russian literary language.

From 1950 to 1965, 17 volumes were published "Dictionary of the modern Russian literary language" Academy of Sciences of the USSR. This dictionary is normative and explanatory-historical at the same time. It contains "all the lexical richness of the Russian literary language with its grammatical characteristics, from the era of Pushkin to the present day."

On its basis, a small academic "Dictionary of the Russian language" in 4 volumes, which is a standard dictionary of the modern Russian literary language, very close to Ushakov's dictionary, with corresponding changes in the vocabulary. There are many more examples from fiction here.

Main BUTspectrum dictionaries can be divided into two large groups.

First - dictionaries synonymous, antonymic, paronymic, homonymous, derivational, dialectal. Here are described single-order linguistic units forming a homogeneous microstructure.

The second - etymological, historical, spelling, orthoepic dictionaries, dictionaries of grammatical difficulties, foreign words, etc.

In these dictionaries, regarding heterogeneous lexical material is analyzed from a strictly defined point of view.

Among synonymous dictionaries recent years, first of all, the "Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language" edited by A.P. Evgenyeva (vols. 1-2, 1970-1971) stands out. This dictionary reflects the synonymic connections of the words of the modern Russian literary language. Each dictionary entry includes a synonymic row, a semantic and stylistic commentary on the synonymic row, and illustrations. "Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language" by Z.E. Alexandrova (1968) is a dictionary-index, it is designed for those who are sufficiently fluent in Russian.

In the 1970s, several antonymous dictionaries:

"Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language" L.A. Vvedenskaya (1971);

"Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language" N.P. Kolesnikova (1972);

"Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language" M.R. Lvov (1978) - contains about 2 thousand antonymic pairs, compiled on a large factual material (works of Russian and Soviet literature).

In the "Dictionary of Homonyms of the Russian Language" O.S. Akhmanova (1974) considers the phenomenon of homonymy, the author takes into account the transitional cases from polysemy to homonymy. The dictionary entry contains the necessary grammatical and stylistic information.

In 1968, a reference dictionary by Yu.A. Belchikov and M.S. Panyusheva " Difficult cases the use of single-root words of the Russian language”, which can be considered the first experience of creating a dictionary paronyms. It contains about 200 pairs (groups) of words with the same root, in the use of which confusion is observed in the practice of speech.

From word-building dictionaries should be called "School word-building dictionary of the Russian language" A.N. Tikhonov (1978). The dictionary entry does not have descriptions and interpretations, the words are placed in nests, each of which combines words with the same root. The root serves as a carrier of a common meaning. All derivative words are given in a certain sequence, reflecting the stepwise nature of word formation in Russian, for example: weak (th) - weak-e-be - o-weaken - weakened j-e

Among the various dialect dictionaries one can note the multi-volume Dictionary of Russian Folk Dialects (1965), which presents the dialect vocabulary of all Russian dialects of the 19th-20th centuries. This dictionary is explanatory-translating, since the dictionary consists of dialect words, and interpretation is carried out through the words of the literary language. A dictionary entry in a dialect dictionary consists of a title, grammatical, semantic and historical characteristics interpreted word; extended interpretation; illustrations; indications of the source, time and place of fixation of a particular dialect word.

Etymological dictionaries contain information about the origin of words. Of the pre-revolutionary publications, A.G. Preobrazhensky. In this dictionary, words are arranged in nests, that is, the origin of root words is investigated. For each word, one-root parallels from related languages ​​are given. For borrowed words, the source language is indicated. In addition, the author gives different points of view on the origin of words and indicates special literature. The most complete etymological dictionary is the Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language by M. Fasmer. The word-forming-historical is the “Brief Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language” by N.M. Shansky.

Among orthoepic dictionaries the reference dictionary “Orthoepic dictionary of the Russian language (pronunciation, stress, grammatical forms)” edited by R.I. Avanesov (about 63,500 words).

The most complete orthographic reference book - "Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language" edited by S.G. Barkhudarova, S.I. Ozhegov and A.B. Shapiro (about 106 thousand words). The dictionary contains the necessary grammatical characteristics of words and their forms, as well as pronunciation, derivational and lexical variants of words, if the variance is associated with spelling.

The desire to collect and systematize phraseological units of the Russian language found expression in the publication of a number of phraseological dictionaries.

« Winged words» S.V. Maksimova - 1890 and 1892 "Winged words (An attempt to explain walking words and expressions)", containing an interpretation of 129 words and expressions (stable combinations of words, sayings, etc.).

The most complete (over 4 thousand phraseological units) is published in 1967 under the editorship of A.I. Molotkov Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language. Phraselogisms are given with possible variants of components, an interpretation of the meaning is given, forms of use in speech are indicated. Each meaning is illustrated with quotes from fiction and journalism. In some cases, etymological information is given.

In 1980, the School phrasebook Russian language” V.P. Zhukov, containing about 2 thousand of the most common phraseological units found in fiction and journalistic literature and in oral speech. Much attention is paid in the book to historical and etymological references. In 1967, the Dictionary of Russian Proverbs and Sayings was published by the same author, which includes about a thousand expressions of this nature. Most full assembly such material is the collection "Proverbs of the Russian people" by V.I. Dahl, published in 1862. In 1981, R.I. Yarantsev’s “Dictionary-Reference Book of Russian Phraseology” was published, containing about 800 phraseological units.

Dictionaries of compatibility (lexical), grammar dictionaries and dictionaries of correctness (difficulties) - an example is the "Educational dictionary of the compatibility of words of the Russian language" edited by P.N. Denisova, V.V. Morkovkina (1978), containing about 2500 dictionary entries with the title word - noun, adjective, verb.

The most complete grammatical dictionary is the “Grammar Dictionary of the Russian Language. Inflection” by A.A. Zaliznyak, which includes about 100 thousand words. It comprehensively reflects modern Russian inflection (declension and conjugation).

"Dictionary of indeclinable words" N.P. Kolesnikov, containing about 1800 indeclinable nouns and other invariable words.

Especially for the needs of the school, A.V. Tekuchev and B.T. Panov.

Onomastic dictionaries (dictionaries of proper names) -"Dictionary of Russian personal names" N.A. Petrovsky, containing about 2,600 male and female names - anthroponymic vocabulary. "Brief Toponymic Dictionary" V.A. Nikonov, containing about 4 thousand names of the largest geographical objects in the USSR and in foreign countries. The dictionary contains the origin and history of toponyms.

A peculiar combination of toponymic and word-building dictionaries are the publications: “Dictionary of names of the inhabitants of the RSFSR”, containing about 6 thousand names, edited by A.M. Babkin and the "Dictionary of names of the inhabitants of the USSR", containing about 10 thousand names, edited by A.M. Babkina and E.A. Levashova.

A special type is difficulty dictionaries. For example, in the directory "Difficulties in word usage and variants of the norms of the Russian literary language" under the editorship of K.S. Gorbachevich included such words that need a certain qualification in terms of their relevance or inappropriateness in speech. The dictionary reflects the coexistence of various kinds of options:

accentological ( then "immediately - immediately" with);

pronunciation ( identity - identity);

formative ( from the forest - from the forest);

formal grammatical ( shutter - shutter).

For example, "Dictionary of difficulties of the Russian language" D.E. Rosenthal and M.A. Telenkova (1976) contains about 30 thousand owls, causing difficulties of a very different nature (spelling, orthoepic, stylistic, grammatical, etc.)

Dictionaries of foreign words contain elementary information about the origin of borrowed vocabulary. The first dictionary of foreign words was the handwritten Lexicon of New Vocabularies in Alphabet, compiled at the beginning of the 18th century. During the XVIII-XIX centuries. a number of dictionaries of foreign words and terminological dictionaries close to them were published.

At present, the most complete is the Dictionary of Foreign Words, edited by I.V. Lekhina, F.N.Petrova, and others. It explains about 23 thousand words and common terms of foreign origin from various fields of knowledge, found in various styles, indicates the origin of the word, and, if necessary, marks the way of borrowing.

In the "Dictionary of foreign expressions and words ..." A.M. Babkina and V.V. Shendetsova collected words and expressions of foreign languages ​​used in Russian without translation, in compliance with the graphics and spelling of the source language.

Currently, Russian lexicography provides an unusually large selection of dictionaries of various types that have appeared in the last 20-30 years, which allows us to talk about the "golden age of lexicography", about the "lexicographic boom".

The specifics of modern lexicography include the fact that the structure of dictionary entries has become much more complicated, the amount of information that can be obtained about a particular language unit has increased, i.e. compilers of dictionaries began to strive for a comprehensive coverage of linguistic facts.

Modern lexicography has significantly expanded and strengthened its tools computer technology creation and operation of dictionaries.

Special programs - databases, computer filing cabinets, text processing programs - allow you to automatically generate dictionary entries, store dictionary information and process it.

Some modern dictionaries owe their existence to computer technologies for processing large corpora of texts. The use of computer tools greatly facilitates the work of a lexicographer and increases the efficiency of lexicographic work.

List of used literature

1. Vinogradov V.V. Selected works. Lexicology and lexicography / V.V. Vinogradov. - M.: Education, 1977. - S. 243-264.

2. Kozyrev V.A. Russian lexicography: a guide for universities / V.A. Kozyrev. - M.: Bustard, 2004. - 288 p.

3. Murina L.A. Russian language exam. A guide for applicants to universities / L.A. Murina, I.S. Rovdo and others - Minsk: TetraSystems, 2000. - 255 p.

4. Rosenthal D.E. Dictionary-reference linguistic terms: Teacher's Manual / D.E. Rosenthal, M.A. Telenkova. - M.: Enlightenment, 1985. - 399 p.

5. Rosenthal D.E. Modern Russian / D.E. Rosenthal, I.B. Golub, M.A. Telenkova. - M.: Iris-Press, 2006. - 448 p.

6. Tikhonov A.N. Morphemic spelling dictionary / A.N. Tikhonov. - M.: AST, 2004. - 704 p.

7. Shcherba L.V. Experience general theory lexicography / L.V. Shcherba. - L .: Nauka, 1974. - S. 265-304.

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The study of the subject of lexicography or a section of linguistics dealing with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. The problem of the semantic structure of the word. Principles of dictionary description of language. Lexicographic parameter and labels. Interpretation requirements.

Lexicography (from the Greek lexikos - relative to the word; grapho - I write), a section of the language, engaged in the practice and theory of compiling dictionaries. Theor. L. form. in the 2nd third of the 20th century.

Theoret. lexicography covers a complex of problems connected.

With the development of the macrostructure of dictionaries (selection of vocabulary, principles of material arrangement, volume and character of the dictionary), microstructure (pages of the article, relative types of info), the creation of a typology of dictionaries and the history of lexicography.

Practical lexicography - compiling dictionaries.

L. connection. with all sections of the language, esp. with lexicol., pl. prob. cat. receive in L. specific. refraction. Modern L. underline. important social f dictionaries, cat. fixed cos-st knowledge obsh-va given. era. L. developed. typology of dictionaries. Single-lingual L. stood out (explanatory and other dictionaries), bilingual. L. (translational words); educational L. (script for learning languages), scientific and technical. L. (terminological dictionaries), etc.

1m in fatherland science to the problem of typology of dictionaries inverse. Shcherba (1940). His classic. slave. put an important for L. question. and determined prospect. L. theory and practice. Far she received development. in three many Soviet and foreign linguists.

So, highlighting in question. about the types of dictionaries, a number of oppositions L.V. Shcherba wanted to outline some of the foundations of the future theory. This is not a classifier, but rather the founder. principles of selection and grouping of words and representation in the dictionary of their meanings.

But there is always Ph.D. kind of s-rya, cat. yavl. "transitional". Offering contrapositions, Sch. saw contradictory. and difficulties unequivocally. dividing the sl-ray into types. Thoughts Shch. conc-Xia around. 2 ideas: s1st st., it is important to differentiate the sl-ri in St. with their appointment, with other art., practical experience showing that "compromises" were created. very good and useful. sl-ri.

Recognition of trade-offs (for example, the introduction of proper names in a common dictionary) creates the possibility of combining features of different dictionaries. So, there are types of explanatory-encyclopedic, linguo-cultural, linguo-culturological dictionaries. This direction seems promising. The connection of the incompatible is also possible on the basis of a bilingual dictionary, in which it is proposed to introduce comments into the dictionary. article for the most accurate representation of culturally connoted vocabulary.

L. V. Shcherba. "EXPERIENCE OF THE GENERAL THEORY OF LEXICOGRAPHY"

1. Dictionary of academic type - dictionary-reference

Refer to the reference dictionary when reading texts in not very good. sign. yaz's or texts about unknown. subjects and special labor. texts in foreign languages/ancient texts in genus. language, especially with unaccustomed content To normative/academic sl-ryu appraisal for self-examination and for finding. in dan. contact words.

Note. a dictionary of the 1st kind can serve as any edition of the French academician; in quality sl-rya 2nd kind m.decree. at the end "Sl-r Rya", published in Leningrad by our Ak.nauk under the editorship of Shakhmatov and his successors from 1897 to 1937. In the main - once. practical appointment sl-ray.

To the type of sl-ray-references, it is necessary to rel. all kinds of tech. dictionaries. Conversely, s-ri ka-koi-n. specialty, e.g., medical s., military s., m.b. s-rami academic. type, if there is no collection of words from different eras or the next local use, unknown to all specials.

Enc.sl. in essence sl-ri-reference, because do not have a setting for lingv. units of the dictionary.

Regional dictionaries belong to the type of reference dictionaries. Such is the "Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary", published by the Second Department of the Academy of Sciences in 1852.

2. Encyclopedic dictionary - general dictionary.

Question. about own names of representatives difficulty for this position, because nouns in lang. but not on all grounds m. b. entered in the dictionary. Dr. the difficulty of this opposition is represented. terms. Pts. pl. specialist. terms are not included in the common lit. language and are special. jargon. They are explained in detail in the general/various tech. encyclo-yah. But there are many such terms, cat. are also included in LA. But very often they will have different meanings in general literary and in special languages.

3. Thesaurus - ordinary (explanatory or translation) dictionary

When they say thesaurus, they most often mean "Thesaurus linguae latinae", enterprise 5 in German. academies, begun back in 1900 and still brought up to the present day with omissions only to the letter M. Haar-naya esp. this type of dictionaries comp. in the fact that they contain all decisively the words encountered in Dan. lang. at least 1 time, and that under each. in a word, all resolutely quotations from the available ones are given. lang. texts.

But there are motives, a cat. in known cases make the type thesaurus in its purest form the ideal dictionary in general. value words are empirically derived from the language. mat-la.

Under the sign of all these ideas, it is true, the "Dictionary of the Republic of Kazakhstan" was compiled, published by our Acad. Sciences, ed. Shakhmatova, early from 1897, and the remaining unfinished. He shouldn't. be a real thesaurus, but max quotes was his main principle.

4. Ordinary (explanatory or translation) dictionary - an ideological dictionary.

To create present ideological dictionary n. have full and och. an exact list of word-concepts is given. lang., and to comp. such list. concept words, n. describe everything clearly meaning of words in the usual w-ryah. Dr. work-to create-I present. ideologist. sl-rya lies in the class. words-concepts, cat. would discover their living relationship.

5. Explanatory dictionary - translation dictionary. Talk. sl-ri exalted. in application to LA in order to normalize it (“Sl. fr. acad.”), more precisely enrichment, and ch. - better development of its wealth. T. sl-ri predn. for data carriers. language. Translating vocabulary arises from the need to understand texts in a foreign language.

Transl. sl-r turns out to be useful for the beginning of their study. foreign language. But a special type of re-rev. sl-rya d. stay for people, not very good. choir. zn-x foreign language, cat. translating into this language.

For 2 lang-in n. 4 dictionaries - 2 interpretations. foreign dictionary with explanations for gender. the language of the user is given. sl-rem and depending on the real. needs - 2 translations. vocabulary with genus. language into foreign specialist. type.

6. Non-historical dictionary - historical dictionary.

Pure type academic. sl-rya appears to be a non-historical dictionary. Does it become historical if it includes. facts lang. Pushkin, which are in the opposite speech. with modern upotr., and those > facts, we indisputably, but not quite even understandable? East in the fullest sense b. such a dictionary, a cat. I would give the ist of all words in pro-heavy-and def. segment time, beginning with def. dates / eras, and the decree would not only be new. words and meanings, but also their withering away, as well as their modification. So. there is still no word for it, and its very type is still d.b. worked out.

There are 2 types of dictionaries in the SRY: encyclopia and philology (linguistic).

Lexicography (Greek lexikon - dictionary + grapho - I write) - a section of linguistics that deals with the compilation of dictionaries and their study. This science studies the semantic structure of the word, the features of words, their interpretation.

Practical lexicography performs socially important functions, providing language teaching, description and normalization of the language, interlingual communication, scientific study of the language. Lexicography seeks to find the most optimal and acceptable for perception ways of dictionary representation of the entire body of knowledge about the language.

Theoretical lexicography covers a complex of problems related to the development of the macrostructure (selection of vocabulary, the volume and nature of the dictionary, the principles of the arrangement of material) and the microstructure of the dictionary (the structure of the dictionary entry, types of dictionary definitions, the ratio of different types of information about the word, types of language illustrations, etc.). ), with the creation of a typology of dictionaries, with the history of lexicography.

Lexicography represents a word in the totality of all its properties, so the dictionary is not only a unique and indispensable guide to the language, but also the most important tool for scientific research.

Linguistic science of the 21st century strives to embody all aspects of the acquired knowledge in a dictionary form, therefore, in the latest dictionaries, not only words, but also other language units become the object of description.

It is clear that one cannot compile dictionaries without understanding what a word is, how it lives and how it “works” in our speech. This is why lexicography is very closely related to and dependent on lexicology. At the same time, the compilers of dictionaries, thinking about words, their meanings, their "behavior" in speech, enrich the science of the word with new observations and generalizations. This means that not only lexicography depends on lexicology, but lexicology also depends on lexicography. These two sciences presuppose each other.

Basic types of dictionaries

There are two types of dictionaries: encyclopedic and philological (linguistic). The first explains the realities (objects, phenomena), provides information about various events: soviet encyclopedia. Literary Encyclopedia, Children's encyclopedia, political dictionary, philosophical dictionary. Secondly, words are explained, their meanings are interpreted.

Linguistic dictionaries, in turn, are divided into two types: bilingual (less often multilingual), i.e., translation dictionaries that we use when studying foreign language, in working with a foreign language text ( Russian-English dictionary, Polish-Russian dictionary, etc.), and monolingual.

Explanatory dictionaries, Phraseological dictionaries, Dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, paronyms and dictionaries of new words, Dictionaries of compatibility (lexical), grammatical dictionaries and dictionaries of correctness (difficulties), Derivative, dialect, frequency and reverse dictionaries, Spelling and orthoepic dictionaries.

Neologisms (from the Greek neo - “new”, logos - “word”) are words that are completely new lexical units for a given historical period. Such words have not yet entered the active vocabulary, so they may be unfamiliar to a certain part of the population, for example: a referendum, a mobile phone, an image maker, a marker, a breaker, diving.

The reason for the appearance of neologisms is the social and scientific and technical progress: the emergence of new socio-economic realities, discoveries in the field of science and technology, achievements in the field of culture.

The main sign of neologism is the absolute novelty of the word for most native speakers. The word is in a state of neologism for a very short time. As soon as the word begins to be actively used, it loses the sign of novelty, that is, it gradually enters the lexical system of the language as a common one.

Lexicography (← Greek lexikon - dictionary + grapho - I write) is 1) practical work compiling dictionaries (encyclopedic, linguistic); 2) a section of lexicology that studies the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries.

There are encyclopedic and language, linguistic, dictionaries.

Encyclopedic dictionaries describe not words and their relationships, but objects, phenomena, events, etc. Encyclopedic dictionaries do not contain words of non-significant parts of speech - prepositions, conjunctions, particles, interjections, as well as many adjectives, adverbs, verbs, if they are not used in a terminological sense. In dictionaries of this type there are no grammatical, stylistic markings, indications of use, the origin of words, the relationship between words.

To encyclopedic dictionaries include:
"Great Soviet Encyclopedia"; "Medical Encyclopedia"; "Children's Encyclopedia",
"Short Literary Encyclopedia", various encyclopedic dictionaries.

Linguistic dictionaries describe words as units of language. In dictionaries of this type, the word is presented in its systemic relations with other words of the language, meanings, usage, origin and pronunciation of the word, its grammatical and stylistic characteristics, etc. are given.

Linguistic dictionaries are divided into general and special. To general dictionaries include explanatory dictionaries, bilingual and multilingual dictionaries, as they cover all the vocabulary that is in common use. General dictionaries include the "Consolidated Dictionary of Modern Russian Vocabulary" in 2 volumes [Ed. R.P. Rogozhnikova] (1991), containing more than 170 thousand words from the 14 most popular dictionaries of the modern Russian language, indicating spelling, stress, variants, homonyms, etc.

In special (they are also called aspect) dictionaries, vocabulary is described in one aspect, for example, in dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, paronyms, epithets, etc.

Explanatory dictionaries occupy a central place in the typology of dictionaries.

The first standard explanatory dictionary of the Russian literary language is the Dictionary of the Russian Academy. The first edition of this dictionary was carried out from 1789 to 1794 (parts I-VI) and contained 43,257 words organized according to the word-building-nested order, the second edition - from 1806 to 1822 (parts 1-6 ), already totaled 51,388 words and was arranged in alphabetical order, more convenient for users.

The authors of the "Dictionary ..." adhered to Slavophile views and strove not to include foreign words "introduced without need and which are equivalent to Slavic or Russian ones" [Dictionary of the Academy of the Russian 1789: IX]. This contributed to the inclusion in the dictionary of such words that did not take root in the Russian language, such as corpse breaker"dissector", heat meter"thermometer", herbalist"botanist", ore condition mineralogy, stargazing, astrology, speculation"theory", listener audience, etc.

Such famous writers of the 18th century as D.I. Fonvizin, Ya.B. Knyaznin, I.F. Bogdanovich, R.G. Derzhavin, A.I. Musin-Pushkin and others.

In 1834, the General Church Slavonic-Russian Dictionary appeared by Academician P.I. Sokolov (63,482 words), based on the lexicographic traditions developed by the Dictionary of the Russian Academy. However, in the Dictionary of P. Sokolov, foreign words are more widely represented (for example, newspaper, gas, haberdashery, halimatia, gallop, hemorrhoids, hydra, guitar etc.), “new” words are reflected (for example, unfounded, dizziness etc.), as well as old words (for example, secret guidance, head-bombing and etc.).

The subsequent significant monument of Russian lexicography "The Dictionary of the Church Slavonic and Russian Language", compiled by the Second Department of the Academy of Sciences in 1847 (114,749 words), cannot be considered strictly normative, since, in addition to a selection of words from the monuments of Church Slavonic writing, works of Russian literature, it included and words from the oral speech of the people.

Mid 19th century marked by the creation of a remarkable lexicographic work - "The Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V.I. Dahl, which is also not normative.

The dictionary includes all words from academic dictionaries (about 120,000 words), as well as the treasures of folk speech (more than 80,000 words) that V. I. Dal collected throughout his life - regional words, as well as terminology and phraseology of various crafts, workshops and professions. Proverbs and sayings were included in the dictionary entry; there are more than 30,000 of them in the dictionary. V.I. Dahl was a staunch opponent of the alphabetic grouping of vocabulary material, since it is “extremely dull and dry”, “every living connection of speech is broken and lost”, “there is no strength to read such a dictionary, at the tenth word the mind will become dull and the head will spin” [Dal 2007: 14 ]. Therefore, both editions prepared by the author retain the arrangement of the material according to word-formation nests (1st ed.: 1863-1866; 2nd ed.: 1880-1882). However, this method had its drawbacks: firstly, it was difficult for the average user to find the right word in the dictionary; and secondly, one dictionary entry often contained etymologically unrelated words (for example: space / from stretch out/ and simple /from pro + become, originally - “standing in front” /, venerable / “venerable”, from common-sl. suit“fat” / and mastic (from the Greek mastiche “resin”), utopia / from the Greek. u"not"+ topos"place", "place that does not exist" / and drown / from drown sink/ and etc.). Therefore, in the 3rd (1903) and 4th editions (1912), Dahl's dictionary underwent significant editorial processing by I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay: 1) the material of the Dictionary was sorted alphabetically and provided with appropriate references; distributed over "their" nests; 2) professional corrections and additions were made to Dahl's grammatical comments; 3) the botanical nomenclature has been verified according to scientific sources; 4) 20,000 new words and examples included. This huge editorial work by I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay carried out with amazing delicacy to the author's text, enclosing his comments, corrections and additions in editorial brackets. “Not a single word has been omitted from Dahl's text; not a single phrase is replaced by another phrase,” wrote I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay [Dal 1912: VII].

In the early 50s of the XIX century. the question arose of creating a new standard explanatory dictionary of the Russian literary language.

A dictionary of this type began to be published from 1891 to 1895 under the editorship of Yakov Karlovich Grot (1812 - 1893) under the title "Dictionary of the Russian Language, compiled by the Second Department of the Imperial Academy of Sciences." This dictionary included common vocabulary of literary and business language from the time of Lomonosov. from Church Slavonic and Old Russian language the dictionary includes only those words that have been preserved in the Russian literary language of the 19th century. From the regional vocabulary, only the words used in fiction. According to the academic tradition, only the most common words were introduced from scientific and technical terms.

Grot attached great importance to the clarity and accuracy of determining the meanings of the word. In this regard, the part of the dictionary compiled by him (A - D inclusive) is an unsurpassed example. In determining the meanings, Grot relied mainly on the modern understanding of the word. The dictionary has developed a subtle and detailed system of grammatical and stylistic marks. In 1893, death interrupted J.K. Grot's work on the dictionary. He managed to finish only the first 3 issues of the dictionary (1891 - 1895). Further guidance on the compilation of the dictionary was entrusted to A.A. Shakhmatov. He held completely different views on the dictionary, believing that the dictionary should cover 1) "the whole living language in its entirety", i.e. the entire vocabulary of Russian dialects, as well as 2) Church Slavonic words, “which are used by our spiritual writers or are found in the Russian translation of the books of the Holy Scriptures” [Dictionary of the Russian language 1897-1907: VII]. The main task of the A.A. Shakhmatov considered the reflection, if possible, of all the words of the Russian language, indicating their meanings and the degree of prevalence. The scientist believed that the dictionary should contain not how to speak, but how the people speak - native speakers and writers - representatives of the spiritual and mental life of the people. A.A. Shakhmatov fundamentally abandoned a number of grammatical labels developed by Ya.K. Grotto (for example, the verb has the meaning of pledge, etc.). Thus, A.A. Shakhmatov opposed the normative vocabulary. The dictionary entry in Shakhmatov's dictionary includes a large illustrative material, represented by literary quotations, folklore and dialectological records. The most commonly used words are given parallels from other Slavic languages, etymology is given. During the life of A.A. Shakhmatov, issues with the letters E-W-W, And - fray, most of the releases are in K (up to the word tiny) (1920). After the death of A.A. Shakhmatova (1920) in 1922-1929 issues were published L –fox(vol. V, issues 1-3), M - venerable(vol. VI, issues 1-2), N-undercutter(vol. VIII, no. 1-2). Since 1929, words have been actively included in the dictionary revolutionary era on the different letters, including those already published. The direction of the vocabulary becomes more and more vague. In connection with this, in 1937 the Academy of Sciences decided to create a new type of academic dictionary.

After the revolution, an attempt was made to compile a dictionary of an educational type under the editorship of the outstanding linguist D.N. Ushakov under the title "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" (1935-1940; vol. I-IV). The authors and compilers of this dictionary were well-known domestic linguists V.V. Vinogradov, G.O. Vinokur, B.A. Larin, S.I. Ozhegov, B.V. Tomashevsky, D.N. Ushakov and others. The dictionary includes 85,289 words; in terms of volume, it can be compared with the educational dictionary of P.I. Sokolov (1834), according to the structure and content of the dictionary entry - with a part of the academic dictionary compiled by Ya.K. Grotto. This is a normative dictionary representing the norms of the literary Russian language of the Soviet era. The format of the dictionary did not allow to reflect the entire vocabulary of Russian classical literature, special terms of science, art and technology, dialect words, so it is not an exhaustive guide for learning the Russian language. However, this dictionary, created on the basis of the achievements of academic lexicography, continues to be a very valuable and reliable source of information about the Russian language of a certain period of its development. As a classic collection of Russian vocabulary, Ushakov's dictionary was reprinted in the USA, China, France and Japan.

After the Great Patriotic War the question arose of creating a new dictionary, since Ushakov's dictionary was largely outdated: many new words appeared, the meanings and stylistic coloring of old words changed. From 1957 to 1961 The Dictionary of the Russian Language in 4 volumes (MAS-1), compiled by a team of employees of the Institute of the Russian Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences, is published. The dictionary contains 82,159 words. With regard to the lexicographic processing of the material, MAS-1 follows Ushakov's dictionary: it is also normative, based on the same principles of word interpretation, phraseology presentation, contains an extensive system of stylistic marks and grammatical indications. From 1981 to 1984 the second edition of the dictionary is published, corrected and supplemented, edited by A.P. Evgenieva (MAS-2). Subsequent editions of this dictionary are stereotyped.

On the basis of Ushakov's dictionary, a one-volume normative dictionary of the Russian language is being created, intended for the broadest masses of the people in order to improve their speech culture. The author of this dictionary is S.I. Ozhegov. The first edition of the dictionary was published in 1949 and contains 53 thousand words. The second (1952) and fourth (1960) editions of the dictionary were corrected and supplemented with the direct participation of the author, who continued to work on improving the structure and content of the dictionary until his death in 1964. Subsequently, the dictionary was reprinted under the direction of N.Yu. Shvedova. The 9th (1972), 13th (1981), 16th (1984), 19th (1987), 21st (1989) are corrected and supplemented. In the 21st edition, the dictionary has grown from 57,000 words to 70,000 words. Since 1992, the dictionary began to appear with the names of two authors - S.I. Ozhegova and N.Yu. Shvedova. This edition of the dictionary already includes 72,500 words. The last, fourth, corrected and supplemented edition of the two-authors' dictionary was published in 1997 and contains 80,000 words.

As noted above, in 1937 the Academy of Sciences decided that it was necessary to create a new type of academic dictionary. Work on the dictionary began before the war. The compilation of the dictionary was entrusted to the staff of the Institute of the Russian Language of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. The publication of the first volume was supposed in 1941, but the war prevented the implementation of this plan. The first volume was published in 1948, and the 17th - in 1965. The Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language in 17 volumes (BAS-1) is the most complete standard explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, it contains more than 120 thousand words , covering a huge period "from Pushkin to the present day", so the authors themselves called it sensible-historical. This dictionary contains large and detailed articles with a carefully worked out system of presenting meanings and shades of meanings in a historical perspective, provided with illustrations from the works of Russian writers, politicians, journalists, lawyers, scientists, etc., with grammatical and stylistic marks. The article indicates (if possible) when given word was first recorded in Russian dictionaries. The Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language in 17 volumes is an outstanding contribution to Russian lexicography; in 1970, the team of authors and compilers of this dictionary was awarded the Lenin Prize.

In 1975, a decision was made to republish the seventeen-volume edition. The second edition (BAS-2) was supposed to be twenty volumes, taking into account the inclusion of new words and relying on the achievements of modern lexicology and lexicography. From 1991 to 1995, 5 volumes of the dictionary were published, but the publication was not completed. In 2004, the Nauka publishing house launched the third edition of the Big Academic Dictionary of the Russian Language in 30 volumes, prepared by the Institute of Linguistic Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences. By 2013, 21 volumes of the dictionary had already been published. Another 10-12 volumes are expected to be released.

Special, or aspect, dictionaries include:

Dictionaries of synonyms (the most famous is the Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language by 3.A. Aleksandrova (1968, 4th ed. 1975; 11th ed. 2001), the latest edition, revised and supplemented, contains about 11 thousand synonymic rows; the two-volume Dictionary of Russian Synonyms language” edited by A.P. Evgenyeva (1970-1971; 2003), including 4148 entries);

Dictionaries of antonyms ("Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language" by L.A. Vvedenskaya (1971; 1982), including over 1000 antonymic pairs of words; "Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language" by N.P. Kolesnikov (1972), containing over 1300 pairs of antonyms; "Dictionary antonyms of the Russian language" by M.R. Lvov (7th ed. 2001), containing about 3200 antonymic pairs; "School dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language" by M.R. Lvov (1981), including over 500 dictionary entries);

Dictionaries of homonyms ("Dictionary of homonyms of the Russian language" by O.S. Akhmanova (1974; 3rd ed. 1986); "Dictionary of homonyms of the Russian language" by N.P. Kolesnikov (1976; 2nd ed. 1978), including more than 3500 nests of homonyms, L. A. Vvedenskaya, N. P. Kolesnikov "Educational Dictionary of Paronyms of the Russian Language" (2011), containing about 400 dictionary entries);

Dictionaries of paronyms (dictionary-reference book "Difficult cases of using single-root words of the Russian language" by Yu.A. Belchikov and M.S. Panyusheva (1968); "Dictionary of paronyms of the Russian language" by N.P. Kolesnikov (1971), containing over 3000 single-root and similar-sounding words of different roots, "Paronyms in the Russian language" by O. V. Vishnyakova (1974; 1984), the dictionary includes over 500 paronymic pairs, "Dictionary of paronyms of the modern Russian language" by Y. A. Belchikov and M. S. Panyusheva (1994; 2007), which includes more than 200 pairs (groups) of paronyms); L. A. Vvedenskaya, N. P. Kolesnikov "Educational dictionary of paronyms of the Russian language" (2010), containing about 400 dictionary entries);

Dictionaries of foreign words (the most famous is the "Dictionary of Foreign Words" edited by I.V. Lekhin, S.M. Lokshin, F.N. Petrov (chief editor) and L.S. Shaumyan; " New dictionary foreign words "E.N. Zakharenko, L.N. Komarova, I.V. Nechaeva (2003), containing 25,000 words and phrases);

Dictionaries of new words (Edited by N.Z. Kotelova: “New words and meanings: a dictionary-reference book based on the materials of the press and literature of the 60s (1971); “New words and meanings: a dictionary-reference book based on the materials of the press and literature 70 -s (1984); "New words and meanings: a dictionary-reference book on the materials of the press and literature of the 80s" (1997); "New words and meanings: a dictionary-reference book on the materials of the press and literature of the 90s" (2006) ; these editions describe 25,000 words that have appeared and are fixed in the modern Russian literary language);

Dialect, or regional, dictionaries (“Experience of the regional Great Russian dictionary” (1852); Dictionary of Russian folk dialects. Issue 1-40. - L.-SPb., 1965-2006 (publication ongoing); a significant number of regional dialect dictionaries, for example "The Lexical Atlas of the Moscow Region" by A.F. Voitenko (1991), containing 160 dialect maps);

Etymological dictionaries (Fasmer M. Etymological dictionary of the Russian language. Translation from German and additions by O.N. Trubacheva. T. I - IV. - M., 1964-73; Chernykh P.Ya. Historical and etymological dictionary of the Russian language: 13560 words V.1-2. - M., 1993; Shansky N.M., Bobrova T.A. Etymological dictionary of the Russian language. - M., 1994; Etymological dictionary of Slavic languages. / Proto-Slavic fund. Issue 1-35. - M., 1975-2009 (publication continues));

Historical dictionaries(Dictionary of the Russian language of the XI-XVII centuries. Issue 1-29. - M., 1975-2011 (publication continues); Dictionary of the Old Russian language of the XI-XIV centuries. T. I-IX - M., 1988-2012 (publication continues ); Dictionary of the Russian language of the 18th century. Issue 1-17. - L.-SPb., 1984-2007 (publication continues); Sreznevsky I.I. Dictionary of the Old Russian language. T. I - III (in 6 books) . - M., 1989);

Writers' language dictionaries (for example, Pushkin's Language Dictionary. Vol. 1-4. - M., 1956-1961; 2nd ed. 2001);

Phraseological dictionaries (for example, "Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language" edited by A. I. Molotkov (1968; 7th ed. 2006), including 4000 dictionary entries; "Dictionary of Russian Phraseology: Historical and Etymological Reference" A. K. Birich , V. M. Mokienko, L. I. Stepanova (1997), describing in the historical and etymological aspect over 2500 phraseological units; "Winged words and expressions of the Russian people" by S. V. Maksimov (2001) and "Winged words" by N.S. and M.G. Ashukins (1955; 1987; 1996));

Derivational dictionaries (Z.A. Potikha “School word-building dictionary” (1961; 1964); A.N. Tikhonov “Derivational dictionary of the Russian language in 2 volumes (1985; 2008); A.N. Tikhonov “School word-building dictionary” (2015), T.F. Efremova "Explanatory dictionary of word-formation units of the Russian language" (1996), describing the semantics of word-formative affixes for the first time);

Terminological dictionaries(for example, O.S. Akhmanova “Dictionary of Linguistic Terms” (2nd ed. 1969); D.E. Rosenthal, M.A. Telenkova “Dictionary-Reference of Linguistic Terms” (2nd ed. 1976); V. A. Vinogradov, N.V. Vasilyeva, A.M. Shakhnorovich A.M. "Brief Dictionary of Linguistic Terms" (1995), S.P. Belokurova "Dictionary of Literary Terms" (St. Petersburg, 2005));

Dictionaries of compatibility (Denisov P.N., Morkovkin V.V. (eds.). “Dictionary of compatibility of words of the Russian language” (2nd edition 1983), including about 2500 dictionary entries);

Frequency dictionaries that determine the relative frequency of the use of words (for example, "Frequency Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language", compiled by E.A. Steinfeldt and published in Tallinn in 1963, contains 2500 of the most common words; O.N. Lyashevskaya, S.A. Sharov "Frequency Dictionary of the Modern Russian Language (Based on the Materials of the National Corpus of the Russian Language)" (2009));

Reverse dictionaries, in which words are arranged in alphabetical order not from the beginning of the word, but from the end, which makes it easy to establish the index of inflections and other formative, as well as word-forming affixes of the language (for example, A.A. Zaliznyak’s “Grammar Dictionary of the Russian Language” (1977 ; 2010), containing 100,000 words);

Spelling dictionaries (for example, "Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language" ed. by S.G. Barkhudarov, S.I. Ozhegov, A.B. Shapiro (1956; 12th ed. 1973); "Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language" ed. C G. Barkhudarova, I.F. Protchenko, L.I. Skvortsov (13th ed.1974; 33rd ed. 1998); "Russian spelling dictionary" edited by V.V. e ed. 2004), containing 180,000 words);

Orthoepic dictionaries ("Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language" edited by R. I. Avanesov (1983; 4th ed. 1988), containing about 63,500 words).

4.6. Phraseology. Types of phraseological units

Phraseology(← Greek phrasis "expression" + logos "teaching") - This 1) a section of lexicology that studies phraseological units, that is, stable turns of speech and expressions; 2) a set of stable turns of speech and expressions of the language.

For the first time in linguistics, Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov spoke about the need to separate phraseology into a separate science. He defined the concept of phraseologism, developed a typology of phraseological units.

In linguistics, there are many definitions of phraseology.

Thus, the outstanding Swiss linguist Charles Balli (1865-1947) in his famous work “French Stylistics” (Russian translation, 1961) defined phraseological units as “combinations that have firmly entered the language”.
V. V. Vinogradov put forward as the most significant feature of the phraseological turnover its equivalence and synonymy with the word.

In the work "Phraseology of the modern Russian language" (1985) N.M. Shansky defined phraseology as follows: “Phraseological turnover is a language unit reproduced in finished form, consisting of two or more stressed components of a verbal character, fixed (i.e. constant) in its meaning, composition and structure.”

We offer the following definition Phraseologism is a reproducible unit of language, consisting of two (or more) words, integral in its meaning and stable in its composition and structure.

V.V. Vinogradov, relying on the works of Sh. Bally and A.A. Shakhmatova, developed a classification of phraseological units, consisting of 3 types ("Russian language" 1972, pp. 23-30):

1) phraseological fusions;

2) phraseological units;

3) phraseological combinations.

V.V. Vinogradova did not consider proverbs and sayings in the category of phraseological units.

N.M. Shansky proposed to add phraseological expressions to this classification.

Phraseological unions(they are also called idioms) - these are phraseological units, the meanings of the components of which do not at all correlate with general meaning phraseological unit; often fusions include words that are out of use, for example: beat the buckets"to mess around" ( bucks - so called chocks for making small chip products - spoons, etc .; beat the buckets-originally meant "to make such chocks", i.e. engage in the most unskilled work); sharpen balusters"to carry on stupid chatter" ( balusters- "railing"; sharpen balusters- originally meant "to make balusters", i.e. to engage in simple work that does not require special skill); goof"to get into an uncomfortable position" ( slippage- “a machine for spinning ropes”, where hair could get into when working with an uncovered head), etc.

Phraseological units- these are phraseological units, the holistic semantics of which correlates with the meanings of their components in a figurative and figurative way, for example: bite the bit"zealously take up any business" - zd. a comparison with a horse that has to bite the bit to speed up the run; put your teeth on the shelf"to need, not to have a livelihood" - zd. it means that in difficult periods of life, when there is no money even for food, teeth are not needed.

Phraseological combinations- these are phraseological units in which there are components with associated and free use, for example: bosom friend“a faithful, devoted friend” (originally - “one with whom you can to pour over the Adam's apple"drink"); sworn enemy"irreconcilable, eternal enemy", i.e. an enemy with whom they swore an oath to fight always.

Phraseological expressions- these are phraseological units that consist of words with free meanings, but, unlike free combinations, are reproducible units of the language, because have a stable composition and structure.

Phraseological expressions are presented popular expressions, proverbs and sayings, as well as other stable combinations of words with free meanings, for example: Love for all ages, Not all that glitters is gold,drive a quitter, filkin's letter(the expression reflects the story of Metropolitan Philip, who protested against Ivan the Terrible and his guardsmen and sent accusatory letters to the tsar, which Ivan the Terrible contemptuously called "filkin letters"); rub glasses“deceive, cheat” (the expression came from the jargon of cheaters, who during a card game could “rub a point”, i.e. quietly stick a red or black sign, turning a six into a seven, etc., or, conversely, with a special white erase the “unnecessary” point with powder).

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Lexicography. Basic types of dictionaries

Lexicography (Greek lexkos - “verbal” and grapho - “I write”) is a branch of linguistics that deals with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. The volume, nature and aspect of the presentation of information determine the type of dictionary.

There are the following types of dictionaries:

I. Encyclopedic Dictionary (encyclopedia) - a scientific reference publication in the form of a dictionary, which contains basic information in alphabetical order in all branches of knowledge. The encyclopedic dictionaries contain the names of prominent people, the names of countries, cities, rivers, the terminology of science, art, etc. . They explain the realities (objects, phenomena) that provide information about various events: the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, Literary Encyclopedia, Children's Encyclopedia, political dictionary, philosophical dictionary, etc. .

II. Linguistic Dictionary- a scientific reference publication, where words (all parts of speech), stable combinations of words with their interpretation, stress, grammatical, stylistic, stylistic and other special marks are placed in alphabetical order. Linguistic dictionaries, in turn, are divided into two types:

1. Bilingual (more rarely multilingual), i.e., translations that we use when studying a foreign language, when working with a foreign text (Russian-English dictionary, Polish-Russian dictionary, etc.).

Depending on the amount of information reported in the dictionary, single-volume and multi-volume dictionaries are issued. . According to the type of information contained in linguistic dictionaries, E. I. Dibrova suggests dividing them into:

1. Explanatory dictionaries that present general cognitive (epistemological) and linguistic information about the word, mainly in the form of everyday concepts and rarely - brief scientific concepts. Aspect dictionaries that put:

1) specialized information about the word. These include:

Dictionaries of synonyms ("Experience of the Russian Soslovnik" by D. I. Fonvizin (1783), "Experience of the Dictionary of Russian Synonyms" by P. F. Kalaidovich (1818), "Concise Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language" by R. N. Klyueva, "Dictionary of Russian Synonyms "Z. E. Aleksandrova (1968), two-volume "Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language" under the main editorship of A. P. Evgenyeva (1970-1971). "Dictionary of synonyms. Reference manual" under the same edition.);

Dictionaries of antonyms ("Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language" by L. A. Vvedenskaya, "Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language" by N. P. Kolesnikov edited by N. M. Shansky, "Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language" and "" School dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language" M. R. Lvov, edited by L. A. Novikov);

Dictionaries of homonyms ("Dictionary of homonyms of the Russian language" by O. S. Akhmanova "Dictionary of homonyms of the Russian language" by N. P. Kolesnikov, edited by N. M. Shansky);

Dictionaries of paronyms (dictionary-reference book by Yu. A. Belchikov and M. S. Panyusheva "Difficult cases of using single-root words of the Russian language. "Dictionary of paronyms of the Russian language" by N. P. Kolesnikov (1971), dictionaries of paronyms are available in the books of O. V. Vishnyakova: "Paronyms in the Russian language" (1974) and "Paronyms of the modern Russian language" (1981 and 1987). "Dictionary of paronyms of the Russian language" by O. V. Vishnyakova.);

Dictionaries of new words, etc. (in 1971, the dictionary-reference book "New words and meanings" was published under the editorship of N. Z. Kotelova and Yu. S. Sorokin, containing about 3500 new words, expressions and meanings of words that were not included in earlier published dictionaries A new edition of the dictionary, containing about 5500 new words, meanings and combinations of words, was published under the editorship of N. 3. Kotelova in 1984. These dictionaries reflect the material of the press and literature of the 60s and 70s).

2) specialized information about the grammatical properties of the word. These include:

Compatibility dictionaries (lexical) ("Educational Dictionary of Compatibility of Words of the Russian Language" edited by P. N. Denisov and V. V. Morkovkin (1978), containing about 2500 dictionary entries with the head word - noun, adjective, verb (2nd edition , corrected, in 1983);

Grammar dictionaries ("Grammatical dictionary of the Russian language. Inflection" by A. A. Zaliznyak comprehensively reflects modern Russian inflection (declension and conjugation), "Dictionary of indeclinable words" by N. P. Kolesnikov, containing about 1800 indeclinable nouns and other invariable words, a dictionary - reference book "Management in the Russian language" by D. E. Rozental, which includes over 2100 dictionary entries (2nd edition - in 1986), "Grammar and spelling dictionary" by A. V. Tekuchev and B. T. Panov (1976) 2nd edition (revised and enlarged) under the title "School Grammar and Spelling Dictionary" (1985));

Dictionaries of correctness (difficulties) ("Experience of a dictionary of irregularities in Russian colloquial speech" by V. Dolopchev, 1886 (2nd edition - in 1909), work by V. I. Chernyshev "Correctness and purity of Russian speech. Experience of Russian stylistic grammar "in two editions (1914-1915), published in an abridged edition in 1915, included in the "Selected Works" of V. I. Chernyshev (vol. 1, 1970), a dictionary-reference book edited by S. I. Ozhegov (compiled by L. P. Krysin and L. I. Skvortsov), containing about 400 dictionary entries on issues of modern word usage (2nd edition, corrected and supplemented, in 1965), a reference dictionary "Difficulties in word usage and variants of the norms of Russian literary language" edited by K. S. Gorbachevich (1973), "A Brief Dictionary of the Difficulties of the Russian Language. For Press Workers", containing about 400 words (1968), a dictionary-reference journal "Difficulties of the Russian Language" edited by L. I. Rakhmanova ( 1974 and 1981), the book "Grammatical correctness of Russian speech", presenting which is an "experience of a frequency-stylistic dictionary of variants", L. K. Graudina, V. A. Itskovich, L. P. Katlinskaya, edited by S. G. Barkhudarov, I. F. Protchenko, L. I. Skvortsov (1976) , "Dictionary of the difficulties of the Russian language" by D. E. Rozental and M. A. Telenkova, containing about 30 thousand words related to issues of normative and variant spelling, pronunciation, word usage, form formation, grammatical compatibility, stylistic characteristics);

Derivational Z. A. Potihi "School word-building dictionary" (2nd edition, edited by S. G. Barkhudarov), containing about 25 thousand words with their word-building structure, a reference book of service morphemes "How words are made in Russian" (1974) , a manual for students "School Dictionary of the Structure of Words in the Russian Language" (1987), A.N. Tikhonov "School Derivative Dictionary of the Russian Language" and the most complete "Derivational Dictionary of the Russian Language" in two volumes (about 145 thousand words) (1985) );

Morphemic (A. I. Kuznetsova and T. F. Efremova "Dictionary of morphemes of the Russian language" (1986));

Phraseological and other dictionaries (collection of S. V. Maksimov "Winged words" (republished in 1899 and 1955), collection of S. V. Maksimov "Winged words (An attempt to explain walking words and expressions)", collection of M. I. Michelson "Russian thought and speech. Own and alien. Experience of Russian phraseology. Collection of figurative words and allegories" (vols. 1-2, 1902-1903), collection "Winged words. Literary quotations. Figurative expressions" by N. S. Ashukin and M. G. Ashukina (4th edition - in 1988), "Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language"... edited by A. I. Molotkov (4th edition - in 1986), "School Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language" and "Dictionary of Russian proverbs and sayings" by V.P. Zhukov, a collection of "Proverbs of the Russian people" by V.I. about 800 phraseological units (2nd edition - in 1985).

3) specialized information about the history of the word. These include:

Historical dictionaries ("Materials for a dictionary of the Old Russian language according to written monuments" by I. I. Sreznevsky (1890-1912), "Dictionary of the Russian language of the XI-XVII centuries," Dictionary of Russian language XVIII c." edited by Yu. S. Sorokin);

Etymological and other dictionaries ("Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language" by A. G. Preobrazhensky "A Brief Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language" by N. M. Shansky, V. V. Ivanov and T. V. Shanskaya, edited by S. G. Barkhudarov (1961 ), "The Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language" by G. P. Tsyganenke (2nd edition - in 1989), "The Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language" by M. R. Fasmer - the most extensive of the dictionaries of this type (2nd edition - in 1986 -1987).

4) specialized information about the rules of spelling and pronunciation of the word. These include:

Spelling ("Reference Index" attached to the "Russian Spelling" by Y. K. Grot (1885), "Spelling Dictionary" by D. N. Ushchakov (since 1948 published and edited by S. E. Kryuchkov), academic "Spelling dictionary of the Russian language" edited by S. G. Barkhudarov, I. F. Protchenko and L. I. Skvortsov, containing 106 thousand words. Special spelling dictionaries were also published: "The use of the letter ё" by K. I. Bylinsky. S. E Kryuchkova and M. V. Svetlaeva (1945), "Together or separately?" B. Z. Bukchina, L. P. Kalakutskaya and L. K. Cheltsova (1972; 7th edition published in 1988, authors - B. Z. Bukchina and L. P. Kalakutskaya));

Orthoepic dictionaries ("To help the announcer" edited by K. I. Bylinsky (1951), on its basis the "Dictionary of stresses for radio and television workers" was created (1960; compilers - F. L. Ageenko and M. V. Zarva , the 6th edition, containing about 75 thousand words, was published in 1985 under the editorship of D. E. Rosenthal), a dictionary-reference book "Russian literary pronunciation and stress" edited by R. I. Avanesov and S. I. Ozhegov, "Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language. Pronunciation, stress, grammatical forms", authors S. N. Borunova, V. L. Vorontsova, N. A. Eskova, edited by R. I. Avanesov (5th edition - in 1989)).

5) specialized information about the frequency of use of the word, about the use of the word by writers, about the spread of the word in a certain territory. These include:

Frequency Dictionaries ("Frequency Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language" by E. A. Steinfeldt (1963), G. G. Yosselson's Frequency Dictionary (1953), "Frequency Dictionary of the Russian Language" edited by L. N. Zasorina (1977));

Dictionaries of the language of writers ("Dictionary of the language of Pushkin" in four volumes, containing over 21 thousand words (1956-1961, supplement to it "New materials for the Dictionary of A. S. Pushkin" - 1982). Dictionaries of one work are "Dictionary-reference book" The Tale of Igor's Campaign "compiled by V. L. Vinogradova (issue 1, 1965, issue b-in 1984); "Dictionary of M. Gorky's autobiographical trilogy" (compiled by A. V. Fedorov and OI Fonyakova, 1974, 1986).

Dictionaries of epithets ("Dictionary of epithets of the Russian literary language" by K. S. Gorbachevich and E. P. Khablo (1979). "A short dictionary of epithets of the Russian language" by N. V. Vedernikov (1975);

Dialect dictionaries ("Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary" (1852) and "Supplement to the Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary" (1858), at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century a number of dictionaries of individual dialects and dialects were published, "Don Dictionary" by A. V. Mirtov (1929), "Brief Yaroslavl Regional Dictionary..." G. G. Melnichenko (1961), "Pskov Regional Dictionary with Historical Data" (1967), etc.).

There are also the following types of dictionaries:

Reverse Dictionaries ("Reverse Dictionary of the Modern Russian Language" edited by G. Bielfeldt, "Reverse Dictionary of the Russian Language" edited by M. V. Lazova);

Onomastic dictionaries ("Dictionary of Russian Personal Names" by N. A. Petrovsky, "Brief Toponymic Dictionary" by V. A. Nikonov. A peculiar combination of toponymic and derivational dictionaries are the publications: "Dictionary of names of the inhabitants of the RSFSR", containing about 6 thousand names, under edited by A. M. Babkin (1964), "Dictionary of names of the inhabitants of the USSR", containing about 10 thousand names, edited by A. M. Babkin and E. A. Levashov); -

Dictionaries of foreign words ("Lexicon of vocabulary new alphabetically", compiled at the beginning of the 18th century. Currently, the most complete is the "Dictionary of foreign words" edited by I. V. Lekhin, F. N. Petrov and others, "Dictionary of foreign expressions and words..." A. M. Babkina and V. V. Shendetsova, "School Dictionary of Foreign Words" edited by V. V. Ivanov (compiled by V. V. Odintsov, G. P. Smolitskaya, E. I. Golanova , I. A. Vasilevskaya);

Dictionaries of abbreviations and dictionaries of linguistic terms ("Dictionary of Abbreviations of the Russian Language" edited by D. I. Alekseev, "Grammar Dictionary" by N. N. Durnovo (1924) and "Linguistic Dictionary" by L. I. Zhirkov (1945), "Dictionary of Linguistic terms" by O. S. Akhmanova, "Dictionary-reference book of linguistic terms" by D. E. Rozental and M. A. Telenkova) .