home Botany book Languages that belong to the Turkic language group. Turkic group of languages: peoples, classification, distribution and interesting facts. Modern Turkic languages

Languages that belong to the Turkic language group. Turkic group of languages: peoples, classification, distribution and interesting facts. Modern Turkic languages

Ethno-speaking group speaking Turkic languages. This population group is considered one of the oldest, and its classification is the most complex and still causes controversy among historians. Nevertheless, 164 million people today speak the Turkic language. The most ancient people of the Turkic group are the Kirghiz, their language has remained unchanged to this day. And the first information about the appearance of Turkic-speaking tribes dates back to the first millennium BC.

Modern population

The largest number of modern Turks is. According to statistics, this is 43% of all Turkic-speaking peoples, or 70 million people. Next come - 15% or 25 million people. Slightly fewer Uzbeks - 23.5 million (14%), after - - 12 million (7%), Uighurs - 10 million (6%), Turkmens - 6 million (4%), - 5.5 million (3%) , — 3.5 million (2%). The following nationalities make up 1%: Qashqais and - an average of 1.5 million. Others less than 1%: Karakalpaks (700 thousand), Afshars (600 thousand), Yakuts (480 thousand), Kumyks (400 thousand), Karachays (350 thousand ), (300 thousand), Gagauz (180 thousand), Balkars (115 thousand), Nogais (110 thousand), Khakasses (75 thousand), Altaians (70 thousand). Most Turks are Muslims.

Ratio of Turkic peoples

Origin of peoples

The first settlement of the Turks was in Northern China, in the steppe zones. They were engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding. Over time, the tribes settled, so they reached Eurasia. The ancient Turkic peoples were:

Very often in the historical annals the Turks are called Scythians. There are many legends about the origin of the first tribes, which also exist in several versions.

language group

There are 2 main groups: eastern and western. Each of them has a branch:

Eastern:
- Kirghiz-Kypchak (Kyrgyz, Altaians);
- Uighur (Saryg-Uighurs, Todzhans, Altaians, Khakases, Dolgans, Tofalars, Shors, Tuvans, Yakuts).
Western:
- Bulgar (Chuvash);
- Kypchak (Kypchak-Bulgarian: Tatars, Bashkirs; Kypchak-Polovtsian: Crimeans, Krymchaks, Balkars, Kumyks, Karaites, Karachays; Kypchak-Nogai: Kazakhs, Nogais, Karakalpaks);
- Karluk (Ili Uyghurs, Uzbeks, Uyghurs);
- Oghuz (Oguz-Bulgarian: Balkan Turks, Gagauz; Oghuz-Seljuk: Turks, Azerbaijanis, Capriot Turks, Turkomans, Qashqais, Urums, Syrian Turks, Crimeans; Oghuz-Turkmen peoples: Trukhmens, Qajars, Gudars, Teymurtashis, Turkmens, Afshars , Salars, Karapapahi).

The Chuvash speak the Chuvash language. Dialectic of the Yakuts in Yakut and Dolgan. The Kypchak peoples are located in Russia, Siberia, so Russian becomes native here, although some peoples retain their culture and language. Representatives of the Karluk group speak Uzbek and Uighur. Tatars, Kirghiz and Kazakhs achieved independence of their territory and also preserved their traditions. But the Oguzes tend to speak Turkmen, Turkish, Salar.

Characteristics of peoples

Many nationalities, although they live on the territory of Russia, retain their language, culture and customs. Vivid examples of the Turkic people who are partially or completely dependent on other countries:

Yakuts. Often, the indigenous people call themselves Sakhas, and their Republic was called Sakha. This is the easternmost Turkic population. The language was acquired a little from the Asians.
Tuvans. This nationality is found in the east, closer to the border with China. Native Republic - Tuva.
Altaians. They preserve their history and culture the most. They inhabit the Republic of Altai.
Khakasses. Live in the Republic of Khakassia, approximately 52 thousand people. Partially someone moved to Krasnoyarsk region or Tulu.
Tofalars. According to statistics, this nationality is on the verge of extinction. Found only in the Irkutsk region.
Shors. Today it is 10 thousand people who have taken shelter in the southern part of the Kemerovo region.
Siberian Tatars. They speak Tatar, but live in Russia: Omsk, Tyumen and Novosibirsk regions.
Dolgans. These are bright representatives living in the Nenets Autonomous Okrug. Today, the nationality consists of 7.5 thousand people.

Other peoples, and there are six such countries, have achieved their own nationality and now these are prosperous countries with a history of Turkic settlement:

Kirghiz. This is the most ancient settlement of Turkic origin. Let the territory have been vulnerable for a long time, but they managed to preserve their way of life and culture. They lived mainly in the steppe zone, where few people settled. But they are very hospitable and generously meet and see off guests who come to their house.
Kazakhs. This is the most common group of Turkic representatives. They are very proud, but at the same time strong-willed people. Children are brought up strictly, but they are ready to protect their neighbor from bad things.
Turks. A peculiar people, they are patient and unpretentious, but very insidious and vindictive. Non-Muslims do not exist for them.

All representatives of Turkic origin are united by a common - history and common origin. Many managed to carry through the years and even in spite of other problems, their traditions. Other representatives are on the verge of extinction. But even this does not prevent getting acquainted with their culture.

About 90% of the Turkic peoples of the former USSR belong to the Islamic faith. Most of them inhabit Kazakhstan and Central Asia. The rest of the Muslim Turks live in the Volga region and the Caucasus. Of the Turkic peoples, only the Gagauz and Chuvash living in Europe, as well as the Yakuts and Tuvans living in Asia, were not affected by Islam. The Turks have no common physical features, and only language unites them.

The Volga Turks - Tatars, Chuvashs, Bashkirs - were under the long influence of Slavic settlers, and now their ethnic regions do not have clear boundaries. The Turkmens and Uzbeks were influenced by Persian culture, and the Kirghiz - by the long-term influence of the Mongols. Some nomadic Turkic peoples suffered significant losses during the period of collectivization, which forcibly attached them to the land.

AT Russian Federation the peoples of this language group constitute the second largest "block". All Turkic languages are very close to each other, although usually several branches are distinguished in their composition: Kypchak, Oguz, Bulgar, Karluk, etc.

Tatars (5522 thousand people) are concentrated mainly in Tataria (1765.4 thousand people), Bashkiria (1120.7 thousand people),

Udmurtia (110.5 thousand people), Mordovia (47.3 thousand people), Chuvashia (35.7 thousand people), Mari El (43.8 thousand people), however, they live dispersed in all regions of European Russia, as well as in Siberia and the Far East. The Tatar population is divided into three main ethno-territorial groups: Volga-Ural, Siberian and Astrakhan Tatars. The Tatar literary language was formed on the basis of the middle one, but with a noticeable participation of the Western dialect. A special group of Crimean Tatars stands out (21.3 thousand people; in Ukraine, mainly in the Crimea, about 270 thousand people), who speak a special, Crimean Tatar language.

Bashkirs (1345.3 thousand people) live in Bashkiria, as well as in the Chelyabinsk, Orenburg, Perm, Sverdlovsk, Kurgan, Tyumen regions and in Central Asia. Outside of Bashkiria, 40.4% of the Bashkir population lives in the Russian Federation, and in Bashkiria itself, this titular people is the third largest ethnic group after the Tatars and Russians.

Chuvashs (1773.6 thousand people) linguistically represent a special, Bulgar, branch of the Turkic languages. In Chuvashia, the titular population is 907 thousand people, in Tataria - 134.2 thousand people, in Bashkiria - 118.6 thousand people, in the Samara region - 117.8

thousand people, in the Ulyanovsk region - 116.5 thousand people. However, at present, the Chuvash people have a relatively high degree of consolidation.

Kazakhs (636 thousand people, the total number in the world is more than 9 million people) were divided into three territorial nomadic associations: Semirechye - Senior Zhuz (uly zhuz), Central Kazakhstan - Middle Zhuz (orta zhuz), Western Kazakhstan - Junior Zhuz (kishi zhuz). The zhuz structure of the Kazakhs has been preserved to this day.

Azerbaijanis (in the Russian Federation 335.9 thousand people, in Azerbaijan 5805 thousand people, in Iran about 10 million people, in total about 17 million people in the world) speak the language of the Oguz branch of the Turkic languages. The Azerbaijani language is divided into eastern, western, northern and southern dialect groups. For the most part, Azerbaijanis profess Shiite Islam, and Sunnism is widespread only in the north of Azerbaijan.

Gagauz (in the Russian Federation 10.1 thousand people)

people) live in Tyumen region, Khabarovsk Territory, Moscow, St. Petersburg; the majority of the Gagauz live in Moldova (153.5 thousand people) and Ukraine (31.9 thousand people); separate groups - in Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey, Canada and Brazil. The Gagauz language belongs to the Oguz branch of the Turkic languages. 87.4% of the Gagauz consider the Gagauz language as their native language. By religion, the Gagauz are Orthodox.

Meskhetian Turks (9.9 thousand people in the Russian Federation) also live in Uzbekistan (106 thousand people), Kazakhstan (49.6 thousand people), Kyrgyzstan (21.3 thousand people), Azerbaijan ( 17.7 thousand people). The total number in former USSR- 207.5 thousand people speak Turkish.

Khakasses (78.5 thousand people) - the indigenous population of the Republic of Khakassia (62.9 thousand people), also live in Tuva (2.3 thousand people), Krasnoyarsk Territory (5.2 thousand people) .

Tuvinians (206.2 thousand people, of which 198.4 thousand people live in Tuva). They also live in Mongolia (25 thousand people), China (3 thousand people). The total number of Tuvans is 235 thousand people. They are divided into western (mountain-steppe regions of western, central and southern Tuva) and eastern, or Todzha Tuvans (mountain-taiga part of northeastern and southeastern Tuva).

Altaians (self-name Altai-Kizhi) are the indigenous population of the Altai Republic. 69.4 thousand people live in the Russian Federation, including 59.1 thousand people in the Altai Republic. Their total number is 70.8 thousand people. There are ethnographic groups of northern and southern Altaians. The Altai language is divided into northern (Tuba, Kumandin, Cheskan) and southern (Altai-Kizhi, Telengit) dialects. Most of the believing Altaians are Orthodox, there are Baptists, etc. At the beginning of the 20th century. Burkhanism, a kind of Lamaism with elements of shamanism, spread among the southern Altaians. During the 1989 census, 89.3% of Altaians called their language their native language, and 77.7% indicated that they were fluent in Russian.

Teleuts are currently distinguished as a separate people. They speak one of the southern dialects of the Altaic language. Their number is 3 thousand people, and the majority (about 2.5 thousand people) live in rural areas and cities of the Kemerovo region. The main part of believing Teleuts are Orthodox, but traditional religious beliefs are also widespread among them.

Chulyms (Chulym Turks) live in the Tomsk region and the Krasnoyarsk Territory in the basin of the river. Chulym and its tributaries Yaya and Kiya. Number - 0.75 thousand people. Believing Chulyms are Orthodox Christians.

Uzbeks (126.9 thousand people) live in the diaspora in Moscow and the Moscow region, in St. Petersburg and in the regions of Siberia. The total number of Uzbeks in the world reaches 18.5 million people.

Kirghiz (in the Russian Federation about 41.7 thousand people) - the main population of Kyrgyzstan (2229.7 thousand people). They also live in Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Xinjiang (PRC), Mongolia. The total number of the Kyrgyz population of the world exceeds 2.5 million people.

Karakalpaks (6.2 thousand people) in the Russian Federation live mainly in cities (73.7%), although in Central Asia they predominantly make up rural population. The total number of Karakalpaks exceeds 423.5

thousand people, of which 411.9 live in Uzbekistan

Karachays (150.3 thousand people) - the indigenous population of Karachay (in Karachay-Cherkessia), where most of them live (over 129.4 thousand people). Karachays also live in Kazakhstan, Central Asia, Turkey, Syria, and the USA. They speak the Karachay-Balkarian language.

Balkars (78.3 thousand people) - the indigenous population of Kabardino-Balkaria (70.8 thousand people). They also live in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. Their total number reaches 85.1

thousand people The Balkars and their kindred Karachays are Sunni Muslims.

Kumyks (277.2 thousand people, of which in Dagestan - 231.8 thousand people, in Checheno-Ingushetia - 9.9 thousand people, in North Ossetia - 9.5 thousand people; total number - 282.2

thousand people) - the indigenous population of the Kumyk plain and the foothills of Dagestan. For the most part (by 97.4%), they retained native language- Kumyk.

Nogais (73.7 thousand people) are settled within Dagestan (28.3 thousand people), Chechnya (6.9 thousand people) and Stavropol Territory. They also live in Turkey, Romania and some other countries. Nogai language splits into Karanogai and Kuban dialects. Believing Nogais are Sunni Muslims.

The Shors (the self-designation of the Shors) reach the number of 15.7 thousand people. The Shors are the indigenous population of the Kemerovo region (Gornaya Shoria), they also live in Khakassia and the Altai Republic. Believing Shors are Orthodox Christians.

They are settled on the vast territory of our planet, ranging from the cold Kolyma basin to the southwestern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. The Turks do not belong to any particular racial type, even among the same people there are both Caucasoids and Mongoloids. They are mostly Muslims, but there are peoples who profess Christianity, traditional beliefs, and shamanism. The only thing that connects almost 170 million people is common origin groups of languages currently spoken by the Turks. Yakut and Turk - they all speak related dialects.

Strong branch of the Altai tree

Among some scientists, disputes still do not subside over what language family belongs to the Turkic language group. Some linguists singled it out as a separate large group. However, the most generally accepted hypothesis today is the version about the entry of these related languages into the large Altaic family.

A great contribution to these studies was made by the development of genetics, thanks to which it became possible to trace the history of entire peoples in the wake of individual fragments of the human genome.

Once a group of tribes in Central Asia spoke the same language - the ancestor of modern Turkic dialects, but in the 3rd century. BC e. a separate Bulgar branch separated from the large trunk. The only people who speak the languages of the Bulgar group today are the Chuvash. Their dialect is noticeably different from other related ones and stands out as a special subgroup.

Some researchers even propose to place the Chuvash language in a separate genus of the large Altai macrofamily.

Southeast direction classification

Other representatives of the Turkic group of languages are usually divided into 4 large subgroups. There are disagreements in the details, but for simplicity, we can take the most common way.

Oguz, or southwestern, languages, which include Azerbaijani, Turkish, Turkmen, Crimean Tatar, Gagauz. Representatives of these peoples speak very similarly and can easily understand each other without an interpreter. Hence the huge influence of strong Turkey in Turkmenistan and Azerbaijan, whose inhabitants perceive Turkish as their native language.

The Turkic group of the Altai family of languages also includes the Kypchak, or northwestern, languages, which are spoken mainly on the territory of the Russian Federation, as well as representatives of the peoples of Central Asia who have nomadic ancestors. Tatars, Bashkirs, Karachays, Balkars, such peoples of Dagestan as Nogais and Kumyks, as well as Kazakhs and Kirghiz - they all speak related dialects of the Kypchak subgroup.

The southeastern, or Karluk, languages are solidly represented by the languages of two large peoples - the Uzbeks and the Uighurs. However, for almost a thousand years they developed separately from each other. If the Uzbek language has experienced a colossal influence of Farsi, Arabic, then the Uyghurs, the inhabitants of East Turkestan, brought over the years a huge amount of Chinese borrowings into their dialect.

Northern Turkic languages

The geography of the Turkic group of languages is wide and varied. Yakuts, Altaians, in general, some indigenous peoples of northeastern Eurasia, are also combined into a separate branch of a large Turkic tree. Northeastern languages are quite heterogeneous and are subdivided into several separate genera.

The Yakut and Dolgan languages separated from the single Turkic dialect, and this happened in the 3rd century BC. n. e.

Tuvan and Tofalar languages belong to the Sayan group of languages of the Turkic family. Khakasses and residents of Gornaya Shoria speak the languages of the Khakass group.

Altai is the cradle of the Turkic civilization, the indigenous inhabitants of these places still speak the Oirot, Teleut, Lebedin, Kumandin languages of the Altai subgroup.

Incidents in a slender classification

However, not everything is so simple in this conditional division. The process of national-territorial delimitation, which took place on the territory of the Central Asian republics of the USSR in the twenties of the last century, also affected such subtle matter as language.

All residents of the Uzbek SSR were called Uzbeks, a single version of the literary Uzbek language was adopted, based on the dialects of the Kokand Khanate. However, even today the Uzbek language is characterized by pronounced dialectism. Some dialects of Khorezm, the westernmost part of Uzbekistan, are closer to the languages of the Oguz group and closer to Turkmen than to literary Uzbek.

Some regions speak dialects that belong to the Nogai subgroup of the Kipchak languages, hence the situations when a Fergana has difficulty understanding a native of Kashkadarya, who, in his opinion, shamelessly distorts his native language.

The situation is approximately the same with other representatives of the peoples of the Turkic group of languages - the Crimean Tatars. The language of the inhabitants of the coastal strip is almost identical to Turkish, but the natural steppe people speak an dialect closer to the Kypchak ones.

Ancient history

For the first time, the Turks entered the world historical arena in the era of the Great Migration of Nations. In the genetic memory of Europeans, there is still a shudder before the invasion of Attila's Huns in the 4th century. n. e. The steppe empire was a motley formation of numerous tribes and peoples, however, the Turkic element was still predominant.

There are many versions of the origin of these peoples, but most researchers place the ancestral home of today's Uzbeks and Turks in the northwestern part of the Central Asian plateau, in the area between Altai and the Khingar Range. This version is also followed by the Kyrgyz, who consider themselves the direct heirs of great empire and still nostalgic about it.

The neighbors of the Turks were the Mongols, the ancestors of today's Indo-European peoples, the Ural and Yenisei tribes, the Manchus. The Turkic group of the Altaic family of languages began to take shape in close cooperation with close peoples.

Confusion with Tatars and Bulgarians

In the first century A.D. e. individual tribes begin to migrate towards southern Kazakhstan. In the 4th century, the famous Hun invasion of Europe took place. It was then that the Bulgar branch separated from the Turkic tree and an extensive confederation was formed, which was divided into the Danubian and Volga. Today's Bulgarians in the Balkans now speak Slavic and have lost their Turkic roots.

The reverse situation occurred with the Volga Bulgars. They still speak Turkic languages, but after the invasion of the Mongols they call themselves Tatars. The conquered Turkic tribes living in the steppes of the Volga took the name of the Tatars, a legendary tribe that had long disappeared in wars, with whom Genghis Khan began his campaigns. They also called their language Tatar, which they used to call Bulgar.

Chuvash is considered the only living dialect of the Bulgar branch of the Turkic group of languages. The Tatars, another descendant of the Bulgars, actually speak a variant of the later Kipchak dialects.

From Kolyma to the Mediterranean

The peoples of the Turkic language group include the inhabitants of the harsh regions of the basin of the famous Kolyma, the resort beaches of the Mediterranean, the Altai mountains and the steppes of Kazakhstan, which are flat as a table. The ancestors of today's Turks were nomads, along and across the Eurasian continent. For two thousand years they interacted with their neighbors, who were Iranians, Arabs, Russians, Chinese. During this time, an unimaginable mixture of cultures and bloodlines occurred.

Today it is even impossible to determine the race to which the Turks belong. Residents of Turkey, Azerbaijanis, Gagauz belong to the Mediterranean group of the Caucasian race, there are practically no guys with slanted eyes and yellowish skin. However, the Yakuts, Altaians, Kazakhs, Kirghiz - they all carry a pronounced Mongoloid element in their appearance.

Racial diversity is observed even among peoples who speak the same language. Among the Tatars of Kazan you can meet blue-eyed blonds and black-haired people with slanted eyes. The same is observed in Uzbekistan, where it is impossible to deduce the appearance of a typical Uzbek.

Faith

The majority of Turks are Muslims who practice the Sunni branch of this religion. Only in Azerbaijan adhere to Shiism. However, individual peoples either retained ancient beliefs or became adherents of other major religions. Most of the Chuvash and Gagauz profess Christianity in its Orthodox form.

In the northeast of Eurasia, individual peoples continue to adhere to the faith of their ancestors; among the Yakuts, Altaians, Tuvans, traditional beliefs and shamanism continue to be popular.

During the time of the Khazar Khaganate, the inhabitants of this empire professed Judaism, which continues to be perceived as the only true religion by today's Karaites, fragments of that mighty Turkic state.

Vocabulary

Along with world civilization, the Turkic languages also developed, absorbing the vocabulary of neighboring peoples and generously endowing them with their own words. It is difficult to count the number of borrowed Turkic words in the East Slavic languages. It all started with the Bulgars, from whom the words “kap” were borrowed, from which arose “temple”, “suvart”, transformed into “serum”. Later, instead of "serum" they began to use the common Turkic "yogurt".

The exchange of vocabulary became especially lively during the time of the Golden Horde and late Middle Ages, during active trade with the Turkic countries. A huge number of new words came into use: donkey, cap, sash, raisins, shoe, chest and others. Later, only the names of specific terms began to be borrowed, for example, snow leopard, elm, dung, kishlak.

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TURKIC LANGUAGES

Turkic languages- a family of languages spoken by numerous peoples and nationalities of the USSR, Turkey, part of the population of Iran, Afghanistan, Mongolia, China, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia and Albania. The question of the genetic relationship of these languages to the Altaic languages is at the level of a hypothesis that involves the unification of the Turkic, Tungus-Manchu and Mongolian languages. According to a number of scientists (E.D. Polivanov, G.J. Ramstedt and others), the scope of this family is expanding to include Korean and Japanese. There is also the Ural-Altaic hypothesis (M.A. Kastren, O. Betlingk, G. Winkler, O. Donner, Z. Gombots and others), according to which the Turkic languages, as well as other Altaic languages, together with the Finno-Ugric languages Ural-Altai macrofamily. In the Altaic literature, the typological similarity of the Turkic, Mongolian, and Tungus-Manchu languages is sometimes mistaken for a genetic relationship. The contradictions of the Altai hypothesis are connected, firstly, with the fuzzy application of the comparative historical method in the reconstruction of the Altai archetype and, secondly, with the lack of precise methods and criteria for differentiating primordial and borrowed roots.

The formation of individual Turkic languages was preceded by numerous and complex migrations of their speakers. In the 5th c. the movement of Gur tribes from Asia to the Kama region began; from the 5th-6th centuries Turkic tribes from Central Asia (Oghuz, etc.) began to move into Central Asia; in 10-12 centuries. the range of settlement of the ancient Uighur and Oghuz tribes expanded (from Central Asia to East Turkestan, Central and Asia Minor); there was a consolidation of the ancestors of Tuvans, Khakasses, mountain Altai; at the beginning of the 2nd millennium, the Kyrgyz tribes from the Yenisei moved to the current territory of Kyrgyzstan; in the 15th century consolidated Kazakh tribes.

Subsequently, new schemes were proposed, in each of them there was an attempt to clarify the distribution of languages into groups, as well as to include the ancient Turkic languages. So, for example, Ramstedt distinguishes 6 main groups: the Chuvash language, the Yakut language, the northern group (according to A.M.O. Ryasyanen - northeastern), which includes all Turkic languages and dialects of Altai and adjacent regions; the western group (according to Ryasyanen - northwestern) - Kyrgyz, Kazakh, Karakalpak, Nogai, Kumyk, Karachay, Balkar, Karaim, Tatar and Bashkir languages, the dead Kuman and Kypchak languages are also assigned to this group; the eastern group (according to Ryasyanen - southeastern) - the New Uighur and Uzbek languages; the southern group (according to Ryasyanen - southwestern) - Turkmen, Azerbaijani, Turkish and Gagauz languages. Some variations of this type of schemes are represented by the classification proposed by I. Benzing and K.G. Menges. The classification is based on S.E. Malov is based on the chronological principle: all languages are divided into "old", "new" and "latest".

The classification of N.A. is fundamentally different from the previous ones. Baskakova; according to its principles, the classification of the Turkic languages is nothing more than a periodization of the history of the development of the Turkic peoples and languages in all the diversity of small tribal associations of the primitive system that arose and disintegrated, and then large tribal associations, which, having the same origin, created communities that were different in composition of the tribes and, consequently, the composition of tribal languages.

The considered classifications, with all their shortcomings, helped to identify the groups of Turkic languages that are genetically related most closely. The special allocation of the Chuvash and Yakut languages is substantiated. To develop a more accurate classification, it is necessary to expand the set of differential features, taking into account the extremely complex dialect division of the Turkic languages. The most generally accepted classification scheme for describing individual Turkic languages remains the scheme proposed by Samoylovich.

Typologically, the Turkic languages are classified as agglutinative languages. The root (basis) of the word, not being burdened with class indicators (there is no class division of nouns in the Turkic languages), in it. n. can act in its pure form, due to which it becomes the organizing center of the entire declension paradigm. The axial structure of the paradigm, i.e. such, which is based on one structural core, influenced the nature of phonetic processes (the tendency to preserve clear boundaries between morphemes, an obstacle to the deformation of the very axis of the paradigm, to the deformation of the stem of the word, etc.). The companion of agglutination in the Turkic languages is synharmonism.

The presence of vowel harmony and the associated opposition of front-lingual consonants to back-lingual ones, the absence in the original Turkic words of combinations of several consonants at the beginning of a word, at the junctions of morphemes or in the absolute outcome of a word, a special typology of syllables determine the relative simplicity of the distributive relations of phonemes in the Turkic languages.

More consistently manifested in the Turkic languages is harmony on the basis of palatality - non-palatality, cf. tour. ev-ler-in-de "in their houses", Karachay-balk. bar-ay-ym "I'll go," etc. Lip voicing in different Turkic languages is developed to varying degrees.

There is a hypothesis about the presence of 8 vowel phonemes for the early common Turkic state, which could be short and long: a, k (reduced), o, u, c, i, s, i. It is debatable whether there was a closed /e/ in the Turkic languages. characteristic feature A further change in the ancient Turkic vocalism is the loss of long vowels, which covered most of the Turkic languages. They are mainly preserved in the Yakut, Turkmen, Khalaj languages; in other Turkic languages, only their individual relics have been preserved.

In the Tatar, Bashkir and Old Chuvash languages, /a/ in the first syllables of many words has changed into a labialized, pushed back /e/, cf. *kara "black", other Turkic, Kazakh. Kara, but tat. kera; * no "horse", other Turkic, Tur., Azeri, Kazakh. at, but tat., head. no, etc. There was also a transition from /a/ to labialized /o/, typical of the Uzbek language, cf. *bash "head", Uzbek. Bosch The umlaut /a/ is noted under the influence of /and/ of the next syllable in the Uighur language (eti "his horse" instead of ata); a short k has been preserved in the Azerbaijani and New Uighur languages (cf. *kkl- "come", azerb. gkl"-, Uighur. kkl-, etc.). Tatar, Bashkir, Khakass and partly Chuvash languages are characterized by the transition to > and, cf. *kt "meat", Tat.It. In the Kazakh, Karakalpak, Nogai and Karachay-Balkar languages, a diphthongoid pronunciation of some vowels at the beginning of a word is noted, in the Tuvan and Tofalar languages - the presence of pharyngealized vowels.

The consonantism of the Turkic languages can be presented in the form of a table:

so-called. the Oghuz languages allow voiced stops in anlaut; the Kipchak languages allow occlusions in this position, but voiceless occlusions predominate.

In the process of changing consonants in the Turkic languages, sounds with more or less complex articulation were simplified or turned into sounds of a different quality: bilateral /l/ and interdental /z/ disappeared; the velar /q/ in a number of languages has turned into the usual Middle language /k/ or /х/ (cf. *qara "black", Orkhon kara, Kazakh, Karakalp., Karachay-Balk., Uighur qara, but Tur. kara, Chuvash . khur). There are common cases of voicing of consonants in an intervocalic position (characteristic of the Chuvash language and especially of the Turkic languages of Siberia), numerous assimilation of consonants, especially in affixes, transition to > h and t > h before front vowels (cf. dialects of Azeri, Tur. , Uighur languages: Chim< ким "кто"). Наблюдаемое во многих тюркских языках изменение начального й- в аффрикату также объясняется внутренними закономерностями развития тюркских языков. Ср. *йкр "земля", азерб. йкр, кирг. жер (где /ж/ обозначает звонкую аффрикату, хакас. чир, тув. чер. В других случаях изменения звуков могут возникать под воздействием соседних неродственных языков: таковы радикальные изменения тюркского консонантизма в якутском, а также в известной мере в чувашском, появление придыхательных смычных в некоторых тюркских языках Кавказа и Сибири.

The name category in all Turkic languages, except for Yakut, has 6 cases. Them. n. not marked, genus. p. is made out by indicators -yn / -in, wines. n. -s / -i, -ny / -ni, in some languages there are affixes genus. p. and wine. n. with initial -n, dat.-direct. p. -ka / -gk -a / -k, local p. -ta / -tk, -yes / -dk, original p. -tan / -tkn, -dan / -dkn; in languages where assimilation processes are developed, there are variants of the affix genus. n. -tyn / -dyn, wine affix. n. -ty / -dy, etc. In the Chuvash language, as a result of rotacism -з-, variants of the original and local cases -ra and -ran appeared in the intervocalic position; data-vin. n. in this language is combined in one indicator -a / -e, -on / -not.

In all Turkic languages, the plural is expressed with the affix -lar/-lkr, with the exception of the Chuvash language, where the affix -sem has this function. The category of belonging is transmitted using a system of personal affixes attached to the stem.

The numerals include lexical units for designating the numbers of the first ten, for the numbers twenty, thirty, forty, fifty, one hundred, one thousand; for the numbers sixty, seventy, eighty and ninety are used Difficult words, the first part of which represents the phonetically modified names of the corresponding units of the first ten. In some Turkic languages, a different system for designating tens was formed according to the scheme "the name of the unit of the first ten + he" ten ", cf. Khakass. Alt-on "sixty", Yakut. Tsrtyaon "forty".

Demonstrative pronouns in the Turkic languages reflect 3 plans for the arrangement of objects in space: the closest to the speaker (for example, Tur. bu, Chuvash.ku "this"), more distant (Turk. su, Kirg. oshol "that one"), the most remote (tur. o, kirg. al "that").

The paradigm of personal pronouns includes forms of three persons singular. and many others. hours, with their declension in a number of languages, changes in the vowel of the stem occur in dat.-direct. p. units h., Wed. tour. ben "I", but: bana "me", Kirg. men "I", but magica "me", etc.

There are 2 bases of the interrogative pronoun: cf. Uzbek, Nogai kim "who", kimlar "who" (in relation to persons), nima "what", nimalar "what", Nogai not "what" (in relation to objects).

Reflexive pronouns are based on independent nouns. Eg. tsz "inside", "core" (in most languages), Azeri, Kirg. jiam "I myself"; in Shore, Khakass, Tuv, Alt. and tofalar. languages use the word "body" accordingly, cf. shore call, tuv. bodum, Alt. bojym "I myself", in Yakut. language - the word beeyee "body", cf. Yakut. baem "myself", on tour. and Gagauz. languages - the word kendi, cf. tour. kendim "myself", etc.

In the verb conjugation system, 2 types of personal endings are actualized.

The first type - phonetically modified personal pronouns - appear when the verb is conjugated in the present and future tenses, as well as in the perfect and pluperfect. The second type of endings, associated with possessive affixes, is used in the past tense with -dy and the conditional mood.

The most common form of the present tense is in -a, which sometimes has the meaning of the future tense (in Tatar, Bashk., Kumyk, Crimean Tatar languages, in the Turkic languages of Central Asia, dialects of the Tatars of Siberia). All Turkic languages have a form of the present-future tense in -ar/-yr. The Turkish language is characterized by the form of the present tense in -yor, for the Turkmen language in -yar. The present tense form of the given moment in -makta/-makhta/-mokda is found in Tur., Azerb., Uzbek, Crimean Tatar, Turkm., Uighur, Karakalp. languages. In the Turkic languages, there is a tendency to create special forms of the present tense of a given moment, formed according to the model "germs in -а or -ып + the present tense form of a certain group of auxiliary verbs".

The common Turkic form of the past tense ending in -dy is distinguished by its semantic capacity and aspectual neutrality. In the development of the Turkic languages, there was a constant tendency to create the past tense with specific meanings, especially denoting a long action in the past (cf. an indefinite imperfect like Karaim. alyr edim "I took"). In many Turkic languages (mainly Kypchak) there is a perfect formed by adding personal endings of the first type (phonetically modified personal pronouns) to participles in -kan/-gan. An etymologically related form to -an exists in the Turkmen language and to -ny in the Chuvash language. In the languages of the Oguz group, the perfect ending in -mysh is common, in the Yakut language, the etymologically related form is ending in -byt. The pluperfect has the same stem as the perfect combined with the forms of the stems of the past tense of the auxiliary verb "to be".

In all Turkic languages, except for the Chuvash language, there is an indicator -yr/-ar for the future tense (present-future). The Oguz languages are characterized by the form of the future categorical tense in -adzhak/-achak, it is also common in some languages of the southern area (Uzbek, Uighur).

In addition to the indicative in the Turkic languages, there is a desirable mood with the most common indicators -gai (for the Kypchak languages), -a (for the Oghuz languages), imperative with its own paradigm, where the pure stem of the verb expresses a command addressed to 2 lit. units h., conditional, having 3 models of education with special indicators: -sa (for most languages), -sar (in Orkhon, other Uighur monuments, as well as in Turkic texts of the 10-13th centuries from East Turkestan, from modern languages in a phonetically transformed form, it was preserved only in Yakut), -san (in the Chuvash language); the obligatory mood is found mainly in the languages of the Oguz group.

Türkic languages have real (coinciding with the stem), passive (indicator -l attached to the stem), reciprocal (indicator -sh) and coercive (indicators are diverse, the most frequent are -dyr / -tyr, -t, -yz, -gyz) pledges.

The verb stem in the Turkic languages is indifferent to the aspect expression. Aspective shades can have separate tense forms, as well as special complex verbs, the aspectual characteristic of which is given by auxiliary verbs.

Negation in the Turkic languages has different indicators for the verb (affix -ma< -ба) и имени (слово дейил "нет", "не имеется" для огузских языков, эмес - в том же значении для кыпчакских языков).

The models for the formation of the main types of phrases - both attributive and predicative - are the same in the Turkic languages; the dependent member precedes the principal. A characteristic syntactic category in the Turkic languages is izafet: this type of relationship between two names permeates the entire structure of the Turkic languages.

The nominal or verbal type of a sentence in the Turkic languages is determined by the nature of the grammatical expression of the predicate. The model of a simple nominal sentence, in which predicativeness is expressed by analogs of the link (predicate affixes, personal pronouns, various predicative words), is a common Turkic one. The number of types of verb sentences that unite the Turkic languages with a morphological reference member is relatively small (the past tense form into -dy, the present-future tense into -a); most types of verbal sentences developed in zonal communities (cf. the type of verbal sentence with a formative member in -gan, which was fixed in the Kipchak area, or the type with a forming member in -mysh, characteristic of the Oguz area, etc.). The simple sentence in the Turkic languages is the predominant syntactic structure; it tends to include such substitutes for subordinate clauses, the structure of which would not contradict the rules of its construction. Various subordinating relations are conveyed by participial, participle, verb-nominal constructions.

In the structure of the Turkic languages, conditions were laid for the development allied proposals. In development complex sentences Union type played a certain role the influence of Arabic and Persian languages. Constant contact of speakers of Turkic languages with Russians also contributed to the development of allied means (eg, in the Tatar language).

In the word-formation of the Turkic languages, affixation prevails. There are also ways of analytical word formation: paired names, reduplication, compound verbs, etc.

The oldest monuments of the Turkic languages date back to the 7th century BC. The writing of all the Turkic languages of the USSR since the late 30s - early 40s. based on Russian graphics. Turkish uses a Latin-based alphabet.

Turkish language

The Turkish language is also known under the names: 1) Ottoman or Ottoman-Turkish, the name "Ottoman" comes from Osman, the founder of the overthrown Sultan's dynasty; At present, Ottoman (osmanlica) is a pre-revolutionary literary language saturated with Arabisms and Farsisms, and 2) Anatolian-Turkish is a name that arose after the All-Union Turkological Congress in Baku (1926) in connection with the proposal of the Turkish delegation to remove the term "Ottoman" from use . About the place T. yaz. among other languages of the same system, see "Turkic languages".

Distribution area T. yaz. - the entire territory of the Turkish Republic (Anatolia, the Turkish part of Rumelia), the northern part of Syria, small settlements on the Balkan Peninsula (Ada-Kale, etc.) and the Adigen and Akhaltsikhe regions of the SSR of Georgia.

T. yaz. over a wide area of its distribution is divided into a number of dialects. These dialects have either not yet been studied at all, or have been studied to a far insufficient degree. Therefore, to talk about any linguistic map of T. yaz. until you have to. Nevertheless, there are descriptions of individual dialects (Erzurum, Trebizond, Kastamunian, Aydin, Karaman, Macedonian, Karamalitsky, Rumelian, Bosnian), produced mainly by European scholars. It can be seen that the dialects of Eastern Anatolia show convergence with Azerbaijani, while the dialects of Central and Western Anatolia gravitate towards the Istanbul dialect, which formed the basis of the literary Turkish language.

The unsatisfactory knowledge of the written monuments of the era of the emergence of the Ottoman Empire does not allow us to draw a complete picture of the origin and development of the written literary language. Its design began under the strong influence of the Arabic and Persian literature of Islam; gushing into T. yaz. A wave of Arabisms and Farsisms changed the face of literary Tajik language beyond recognition. So for example. in some monuments of the 17th, 18th and subsequent centuries, the Turkish layer occupies an insignificant place (approximately 10-15%). Arabic and Persian influences are not limited to numerous lexical data; morphological (Arabic and Persian plural forms, distinction of grammatical genders, etc.) and syntactic (Persian “izafet”, phrase structure) elements are also borrowed.

The volume of these borrowings to some extent can be an indicator of the social differentiation of the Turkish literary language. In the high-style language of feudal-clerical circles, we meet maximum amount(80--90%) Arabic-Persian words and whole turns, completely alien to the language of other strata of society. Fewer borrowings are observed in the language of the democratic intelligentsia, mainly of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and the smallest number of these borrowings falls into the language of the masses.

On the other hand, the cultural, economic and political conditions of Turkey in the XIX-XX centuries. led to contact with Western European countries. These connections are reflected in the presence in the Turkish language of lexical layers of French (to a greater extent), Italian and other European languages.

In 1928, at the initiative of the republican government, a great reform in the field of language building was carried out in Turkey. The Arabic alphabet, completely unsuitable for the Turkish sound system, was replaced by the Latin one. This reform further strengthened the trend already outlined after the revolution to purify the Tajik language from the alien linguistic layers imposed on it. Under the direct leadership of President Kemal Atatürk, a society for the study of Tajik languages was founded. (Türk dili arastirma kurumu), which has already held two congresses. At these congresses, which took place with the participation of Kemal Atatürk, questions about the liberation of the Turkish language were discussed. from unnecessary and hindering the introduction of culture into the broad masses of Arabisms and Farsisms and about their replacement with Turkish equivalents, as well as questions of terminology, grammar, etc. The stubborn struggle, led by the authority of the president, for the implementation of the decisions of the congresses has already yielded results: at present, the use of Arabisms and Farsisms reduced to a minimum, in the newspapers there are articles written exclusively in Turkish and international words; there is reason to believe that the approximation of the Turkish literary language. to the language of the masses will be successfully completed.

Graphics T. lang. Until 1928, the Arabic alphabet was used in Turkish writing with those additional letters that were introduced in the Persian script, and in addition with an additional letter (sarirnun), introduced to denote the “n” of the posterior palate, which, however, coincided, however, in the Constantinople (literary) pronunciation with “n » front-lingual. After the reform of 1928 (cf. above), Turkish writing uses the Latin alphabet with the following specific letter meanings: c=j, s=h, p=voiced fricative r, e (without a dot)=s, j=zh є=sh.

Uzbek language

The Uzbek language belongs to the languages of the Turkic system and is the state language of the Ukrainian SSR. Uzbek speakers also live outside the Ukrainian SSR (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan).

Modern colloquial U. yaz. is divided into a number of dialects and sub-dialects, which can basically be divided into five groups (Tashkent, Fergana, Kipchak, Khiva or Khiva-Oguz, northern Uzbek). The differences between individual dialects are not so great as to prevent speakers of different dialects from completely understanding each other, and therefore all Uzbeks both inside Uzbekistan and outside it (with the exception of Afghanistan, of course) are successfully served by a single literary language.

The forerunner of modern literary U. yaz. is rightfully considered the Chagatai language, the traditions of which have reached the Great October socialist revolution and which, to the detriment of the development of the literary Uzbek language, were supported by bourgeois nationalists until the early 1930s.

In his historical development U. lang. (both literary and colloquial) was influenced by Iranian (Persian, Tajik) and Arabic languages. If this influence, on the one hand, led to an exorbitant clogging of the literary language with Iranianisms and, especially, Arabisms and made it incomprehensible to the broad masses, then, on the other hand, it nevertheless enriched the language with the necessary vocabulary (“school”, “book”, “paper”, “city”, etc.) and, most importantly, conjunctions and subordinate clauses and the form of the adjective.

In the first years of the revolution, the bourgeois nationalists tried to use the past connections of U. yaz. with Arabic in order to combat the penetration into U. yaz. Sovietisms and internationalisms. Even such terms as "communist", "party", "council", "proletarian" and others, firmly established in the language of the broad masses from the very first days of the revolution, were replaced in the literary language by Arabic ones. There were also attempts of the opposite order: to indiscriminately decry and expel Arab-Persian terms. Recently, a correct attitude towards the Arabic-Persian linguistic elements has been outlined: everything contrived, imposed on the language, is discarded, and everything that has grown into the language and is socially valuable is carefully guarded and skillfully used. International terminology no longer meets obstacles and every year it enriches the Uzbek language more and more.

Alphabet and spelling. Before the revolution, the Uzbeks used the Arabic alphabet, which was hardly suitable for transmitting the sounds of the U. language, and Chagatai spelling, far from living pronunciation. Literacy of the population hardly reached 2%. After the revolution, when literacy was to become the property of the masses, there was a need for a reform of writing, for its democratization. The question of the advantages of the Latin alphabet over the Arabic alphabet was fundamentally resolved back in 1922 at the 2nd conference of Uzbek teachers in Tashkent. The Latinized alphabet was finally developed and approved by an act of the government of Uzbekistan in 1926. practical use it began in 1928. With the transition to the new alphabet, printed matter and the literacy of the population began to grow rapidly. To date, according to official figures, literacy reaches 80%. The transition to the Latinized alphabet at first did not lead to fundamental changes in spelling. In 1929, a new spelling was adopted at a language conference in Samarkand. This orthography, built on the consistent implementation of synharmonism, directed the literary language. towards the dialects of remote, backward regions and tore it away from the dialects of the leading centers, where vowel harmony has long been lost. To express synharmonism, three additional letters for vowels were introduced, and their number is as follows. arr. was brought to nine (with six vowel phonemes in the leading Tashkent dialect). This spelling, imposed by bourgeois nationalists, turned out to be extremely inconvenient and was radically changed in 1934 at a language conference in Tashkent. The conference abandoned synharmonic orthography and reduced the number of characters for vowels to six, as was the case in the reformed Arabic alphabet. The current spelling in the Uzbek language is a big step forward compared to the spelling of 1929, but it also has very significant shortcomings.

At present time runs preparation for the transition to the Russian alphabet. Despite the mistakes made in the matter of language construction, it can be said that the literary U. yaz. has already taken shape and has become a powerful tool for raising the cultural level of the masses. It is taught in schools, books, magazines, newspapers are published. See "Uzbek Literature".

Tatar languages

Tatar languages is an obsolete term for some Turkic languages. The word "Tatars" is a Mongolian tribal name that historically denoted the Mongolian military leaders of the troops of different tribes during the so-called "invasion of the Tatars" in Russia. At the same time, apparently, this term was transferred to the Turkic people, who were part of these troops and settled in the Middle and Lower Volga region. Now under T. yaz. is understood ch. arr. Volga-Tatar (see below); in addition, there are: Crimean Tatar, Lithuanian-Tatar, Tobolsk-Tatar. In medieval Russia, "Tatars" were called all the peoples that were part of the state of the Golden Horde or those that replaced it (Crimean Khanate, Kazan Khanate), hence such a broad understanding of the term. The name is Azeri-Tatar language. was discarded (existed in the 19th and 20th centuries) and replaced successively by the terms: Turkic, Azerbaijani-Turkic and Azerbaijani. The term Astrakhan-Tatar did not hold out either, since this is essentially not a language, but one of the dialects of the Volga-Tatar. The term Kasimov-Tatar (essentially one of the dialects of the Meshcheryatsky, or Misher language) is sometimes used even now.

Tatar language. The Volga region, more precisely - the Volga-Tatar, historically goes back to the language of the so-called Dzhuchiev Ulus or the Golden Horde. Until the beginning of the 20th century. colloquial Volga-Tatar language. masses was very different from the feudal bookish language, which was oriented towards Chagatai and Turkish and was supported by the Muslim school; among the population was known under the name "Turks". At one time, clerical correspondence of the Volga Tatars with the Russian authorities was conducted on it. AT late XIX in. Kayum Nasyri, studying folklore and ethnography, for the first time raises the question of the approach of the Volga-Tatar literary language. to the masses. In 1905, in the Volga-Tatar language. a fairly significant literature was created, the language of which, compared with the previous period, approaches the colloquial.

But the real flourishing of the Volga-Tatar language. was able to achieve only after the Great October Socialist Revolution. As a result of the implementation of the Leninist-Stalinist national policy, Tataristan took one of the first places among the republics and regions of the Union in terms of language building. According to the last division proposed by the researchers of the Turkish language, it is divided into three dialects: central, western and eastern. K T. yaz. adjoins Meshcheryatsky, or Mishersky, that is, the language of the Meshcheryaks living in the former Ryazan (this includes the "Kasimov Tatars"), Penza, Tambov, Ulyanovsk, Saratov provinces, in the former Buinsky, Chistopolsky and Spassky cantons of the TASSR, Gorky Territory and, partly in Bashkiria; The "Tatar" population of Moscow and Leningrad is also usually Meshcheryak. Outside this division, there remains a little-studied dialect of the Perm, or, more precisely, the Glazov Tatars. The differences between the dialects come down to the facts of the dictionary (for example, the Meshcheryatsky dialect before the revolution was distinguished by a larger percentage of borrowings from Russian than others), phonetics (cf. the presence of the sound ts in the Meshcheryatsky, which was absent in others, the indistinguishability of the phonemes q and k, p and g - again in contrast to others) and partly morphology (formation of the 3rd person singular present tense in positive and negative forms: almas (he does not take) or almüs, etc.). The main features of the Volga-Tatar language, characteristic of both dialects and the literary language created after the revolution, and distinguishing it from other Turkic languages, lie in the field of vocabulary, morphology and phonetics. The Volga-Tatar language has a very special type of vocalism, which Radlov sometimes called a kind of "Turkic movement of sounds", chronologically placing the completion of this process in the 14th century. "Wide" vowels o and ts of other Turkic languages in the Volga-Tatar language. correspond to "narrow" u and y (un - ten, kyz - eye - with Kazakh on and koz); "closed" e of other languages in the Volga-Tatar language. corresponds to i (bir -- come on -- with Kazakh ber, kil -- come -- with Kazakh kel). Sounds u and y of other languages in the Volga-Tatar language. correspond to specific vowels (also available in the Bashkir language) o and o, sound value which are very special, about which see in the special literature listed below (toz - salt - in Kazakh tuz, ton - night - in Kazakh tyn). The specific reduced vowel (conditional "e") corresponds to the sound i of other Turkic languages (et - dog - in Kazakh it). At present, due to the assimilation of the sounds e and o in international words (in their usual pronunciation), the signs o and e perform a double function in Tatar orthography. The sound a in colloquial speech (especially the Ural-Tatar dialect) is pronounced with labialization (= e), which weakens as you move away from the 1st syllable and is absent in the final open syllable (balalaqa - “for children” - read beleleqa, etc.). d.). Recently, a new type of initial syllable has appeared (єkaf, stakan, etc.), stress (not at the end) (for example: trbktor), as well as some new morphological categories. In the terminology and dictionary of the Volga-Tatar language. internationalisms now occupy a very important place.

The Tatar language of the Crimea, more precisely - the Crimean Tatar. Historically goes back to one of the local national languages, originated on the territory of the Dzhuchiev ulus (otherwise the Golden Horde). In the XVI-XVII centuries. was subjected (especially in the southern Crimea) to the strong influence of the Turkish (Ottoman) language. Kipchak element of the Crimean Tatar language. due to the significant role of the steppe Turkic nomads (Nogais) in the life of the Crimean Khanate. The feudal language of the era of the Khanate (the former center - Stary Krym, the later - Bakhchisaray) differed sharply from the language of the masses. In the 2nd half of the XIX century. nationalist Crimean Tatar I. Gasprinsky began to publish the newspaper "Terdzhiman", in which he tried to work out (on the basis of the Turkish and Crimean Tatar languages) a common language for the Muslims of "old Russia". This trend was liquidated after the Great October Socialist Revolution. After the Sovietization of Crimea, work began on the creation of a literary Crimean Tatar language, which was not an easy task, due to the strong differences in dialects. certain areas, where the influence of other languages \u200b\u200bis felt (Greeks, Genoese, Armenians in the south, etc.). About the modern flourishing of the Crimean Tatar literary language - see "Tatar-Crimean Literature". To the linguistic features of the Crimean Tatar language. belong in the field of phonetics: the disappearance of h at the beginning and at the end of words (Asan instead of Hasan, saba instead of sabah) "hardening" of q and y after the middle language k and g (i.e. in this position q> o, a y> u, for example koj - village, kun - day) and others; in the field of morphology - the coincidence of the categories of predicate and belonging (for example, oza-m means: 1) “I am a teacher” and 2) “my teacher”, etc. Modern Crimean Tatar language. presents vivid examples of shifts as a result of the rapid restructuring of the economy and life: the dictionary is replenished due to internationalisms and sovietisms, which, displacing lexical Arabisms and Farsisms, simultaneously produce fundamental changes in grammar, such as: the assimilation of international phonemes (c, v, f) and a new type of stress in phonetics, the formation of a feminine category in morphology and the development of a new, freer word order in syntax (in the latter case, it is not so much about the influence of other languages, but about the result of an internal process in the Crimean Tatar language itself).

Tatar language of Western Siberia, otherwise - Tobolsk-Tatar. A little studied language of the Turkic system (see "Turkic languages"). It has rather significant linguistic features (for example, the presence of the sound ц in accordance with ћ of other Turkic languages) - and in particular, a kind of dictionary.

The Tatar language is so called. Lithuanian Tatars, otherwise - Lithuanian-Tatar language. Geographically refers to Poland, where the descendants of those who emigrated in the XIV-XV centuries live. Crimean Tatar clans to Lithuania. At present, the “Lithuanian Tatars” themselves and their language have completely assimilated with the surrounding population. Lithuanian-Tatar language. interesting only as a historical phenomenon.

KYRGYZ LANGUAGE

The Kyrgyz language (Kyrgyz homey, Kyrgyzcha, Kyrgyz tili, Kyrgyzca) is the language of the Kyrgyz, one of the Turkic language. Along with Russian, it is the state language of Kyrgyzstan. Distributed in Kyrgyzstan and, partially, in China (Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region), Afghanistan, Turkey, Pakistan (Chitral), Russia, Tajikistan and Kazakhstan. The total number of speakers is about 3.5 million. It has several groups of dialects.

Phonetic features of the Kyrgyz language: the distinction of vowels according to the chasokilkist (long and short), consistent vowel harmony, at the beginning of the word the affricate w / j is characteristic, which corresponds to / w / d in other Turkic languages.

Morphology is typical for Turkic languages. Demonstrative pronouns have, as a rule, two forms - with and without final-l: bul / bu "this". The transcendental aspect of the verb is expressed with the affix -ba-, but in some cases the word emes can be used transcendentally.

The vocabulary of the literary language has a significant number of borrowings from Arabic, Farsi and Russian.

In 1924, writing was developed on the basis of the Arabic script, after 1926 - on the basis of the Latin alphabet, and from 1940 to the present, the Cyrillic alphabet has been used in Kyrgyzstan and the Arabic alphabet has been changed in China.

Place of the Kyrgyz language among the Turkic languages

The Kyrgyz language has much in common with the Ugrian-Altaic languages, possibly being an Eastern Turkic language in origin; but in its present state it is still closer to the Kypchak languages, forming within them a separate Kirghiz-Kypchak subgroup.

The emergence of written sources in the Kyrgyz language

The written sources of the Central Asian Mongol rulers are known from from-XV century. Their language was Chagatai (davnyouzbekska), while local dialects were used in oral communication, some of which later formed the Kyrgyz language. Numerous folklore texts remained from this period, the processing of which is far from complete.

Although the Kyrgyz language is genetically part of the same branch as the Altaic and other languages northeast of Kyrgyzstan, due to convergence with Kazakh in recent times, when new language partly similar to Kazakh, and both languages are sometimes considered to be part of the Nogai group of the Kipchak and part of the Turkic languages. However, despite the Kazakh influence, Kyrgyz remains much closer to the Altaic languages than to Kazakh.

The new Kyrgyz language did not have a standardized written form in 1923, in which the Arabic alphabet was introduced. Then there was a change to the Latin alphabet, under the leadership of Kasym Tinistanov in 1928 and to the Cyrillic alphabet in 1940. During the years of independence, the subsequent alphabet was discussed, but the result is zero, perhaps because the Kyrgyz Cyrillic alphabet is relatively simple and especially appropriate for the language.

One important difference between Kyrgyz and Kazakh is that Kyrgyz is almost universal while Kazakh has no linguistic national identity. In the early 1990s, Askar Akaev pursued an aggressive policy of introducing Kyrgyz as the state language, forcing the European population left to use Kyrgyz in social situations themselves. 1992 threatening to resign to dramatize the pressure of "kyrgyzification" of the non-native population. The 1992 laws called for the transfer of all public business, which was converted entirely to Kyrgyz until 1997. But in March 1996, the Kyrgyz parliament passed a decision that makes Russian the state language on a par with Kyrgyz. Substantial pressure from Russia was a strong factor in this change, which was part of a general renewal of friendly relations with Russia.

Bibliography

Turkic language phrase written

1. Melioransky P.M. Arab philologist about the Turkish language. SPb., 1900.

2. Bogoroditsky V.A. Introduction to Tatar linguistics. Kazan, 1934; 2nd ed. Kazan, 1953.

3. Malov S.E. Monuments of ancient Turkic writing. M.-L., 1951.

4. Research on the comparative grammar of the Turkic languages. Ch. 1-4. M., 1955-1962.

5. Baskakov N.A. Introduction to the study of Turkic languages. M., 1962; 2nd ed. M., 1969.

6. Baskakov N.A. Historical and typological phonology of the Turkic languages. M., 1988.

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Spreading

The Turkic language group is very numerous. If you look territorially, then the peoples who communicate in similar languages live like this: in the west, the border begins with Turkey, in the east - the autonomous region of China Xinjiang, in the north - the East Siberian Sea and in the south - Khorasan.

Currently, the approximate number of people who speak Turkic is 164 million, this number is almost equal to the entire population of Russia. At the moment, there are different opinions about how the group of Turkic languages is classified. Which languages stand out in this group, we will consider further. Main: Turkish, Azerbaijani, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Turkmen, Uzbek, Karakalpak, Uighur, Tatar, Bashkir, Chuvash, Balkar, Karachai, Kumyk, Nogai, Tuvan, Khakass, Yakut, etc.

Ancient Turkic-speaking peoples

We know that the Turkic group of languages spread very widely in Eurasia. In ancient times, the peoples who spoke this way were simply called Turks. Their main activity was cattle breeding and agriculture. But one should not perceive all modern peoples of the Turkic language group as descendants of an ancient ethnic group. As the millennia passed, their blood mixed with the blood of other ethnic groups of Eurasia, and now there are simply no indigenous Turks.

The ancient peoples of this group include:

Turkuts - tribes that settled in the Altai Mountains in the 5th century AD;
Pechenegs - arose at the end of the 9th century and inhabited the area between Kievan Rus, Hungary, Alania and Mordovia;
Polovtsy - with their appearance they forced out the Pechenegs, they were very freedom-loving and aggressive;
the Huns - arose in the II-IV centuries and managed to create a huge state from the Volga to the Rhine, Avars and Hungarians went from them;
Bulgars - such peoples as the Chuvash, Tatars, Bulgarians, Karachays, Balkars originated from these ancient tribes.
Khazars - huge tribes who managed to create their own state and oust the Huns;
Oghuz Turks - the ancestors of the Turkmens, Azerbaijanis, lived in Seljukia;
Karluks - lived in the VIII-XV centuries.

Classification

The Turkic group of languages has a very complex classification. Rather, each historian offers his own version, which will differ from the other by minor changes. We offer you the most common option:

Bulgarian group. The only currently existing representative is the Chuvash language.
The Yakut group is the easternmost of the peoples of the Turkic language group. Residents speak Yakut and Dolgan dialects.
South Siberian - this group includes the languages of peoples living mainly within the borders of the Russian Federation in southern Siberia.
Southeastern, or Karluk. Examples are Uzbek and Uighur languages.
The Northwestern, or Kipchak, group is represented by a large number of nationalities, many of whom live on their own independent territory, such as Tatars, Kazakhs, and Kirghiz.
Southwestern, or Oguz. The languages included in the group are Turkmen, Salar, Turkish.

Yakuts

On their territory, the local population calls itself simply - Sakha. Hence the name of the region - the Republic of Sakha. Some representatives also settled in other neighboring areas. The Yakuts are the most eastern of the peoples of the Turkic language group. Culture and traditions were borrowed in ancient times from the tribes living in the central steppe part of Asia.

Khakasses

For this people, an area is defined - the Republic of Khakassia. Here is the largest contingent of Khakasses - about 52 thousand people. Several thousand more moved to live in Tula and the Krasnoyarsk Territory.

Shors

This population reached its largest size in XVII-XVIII centuries. Now this is a small ethnic group that can be found only in the south of the Kemerovo region. To date, the number is very small, about 10 thousand people.

Tuvans

Tuvans are usually divided into three groups, which differ from each other in some features of the dialect. Inhabit the Republic This is a small eastern of the peoples of the Turkic language group, living on the border with China.

Tofalars

This nation has almost disappeared. According to the 2010 census, 762 people were found in several villages of the Irkutsk region.

Siberian Tatars

The eastern dialect of Tatar is the language that is considered to be the national language for the Siberian Tatars. This is also a Turkic group of languages. The peoples of this group are densely settled in Russia. They can be found in the countryside of the regions of Tyumen, Omsk, Novosibirsk and others.

Dolgans

A small group living in the northern regions of the Nenets Autonomous Okrug. They even have their own municipal district - Taimyrsky Dolgano-Nenetsky. To date, only 7.5 thousand people remain representatives of the Dolgans.

Altaians

The Turkic group of languages includes the Altai lexicon. Now in this area you can freely get acquainted with the culture and traditions of the ancient people.

Independent Turkic-speaking states

To date, there are six separate independent states, the nationality of which is the indigenous Turkic population. First of all, these are Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. Of course, Turkey and Turkmenistan. And do not forget about Uzbekistan and Azerbaijan, which to the Turkic language group treat exactly the same.

Mine autonomous region Uyghurs have. It is located in China and is called Xinjiang. Other nationalities belonging to the Turks also live in this territory.

Kyrgyz

The Turkic group of languages primarily includes Kyrgyz. Indeed, the Kirghiz or Kyrgyz are the most ancient representatives of the Turks who lived on the territory of Eurasia. The first mention of the Kirghiz are found in 1 thousand BC. e. Almost throughout its history, the nation did not have its own sovereign territory, but at the same time managed to preserve its identity and culture. The Kyrgyz even have such a concept as "ashar", which means joint work, close cooperation and rallying.

The Kirghiz have long lived in the steppe sparsely populated areas. This could not but affect some of the features of character. These people are extremely hospitable. When a new person used to arrive in the settlement, he would tell news that no one could hear before. For this, the guest was rewarded with the best treats. It is customary to venerate guests sacredly to this day.

Kazakhs

The Turkic language group could not exist without the most numerous Turkic people living not only in the state of the same name, but throughout the world.

The folk customs of the Kazakhs are very severe. Children from childhood are brought up in strict rules, they are taught to be responsible and hardworking. For this nation, the concept of "jigit" is the pride of the people, a person who, at all costs, defends the honor of his fellow tribesman or his own.

In the appearance of the Kazakhs, there is still a clear division into "white" and "black". AT modern world this has long lost its meaning, but the remnants of the old concepts are still preserved. A feature of the appearance of any Kazakh is that he can simultaneously look like a European and a Chinese.

Turks

The Turkic group of languages includes Turkish. It so happened historically that Turkey has always closely cooperated with Russia. And these relations were not always peaceful. Byzantium and later Ottoman Empire, began its existence simultaneously with Kievan Rus. Even then there were the first conflicts for the right to rule the Black Sea. Over time, this enmity intensified, which largely influenced the relationship between Russians and Turks.

Turks are very peculiar. First of all, this can be seen in some of their features. They are hardy, patient and completely unpretentious in everyday life. The behavior of the representatives of the nation is very cautious. Even if they are angry, they will never express their dissatisfaction. But then they can hold a grudge and take revenge. In serious matters, the Turks are very cunning. They can smile in the face, and plot intrigues behind their backs for their own benefit.

The Turks took their religion very seriously. Severe Muslim laws prescribed every step in the life of a Turk. For example, they could kill an unbeliever and not be punished for it. Another feature is connected with this feature - a hostile attitude towards non-Muslims.

Conclusion

Turkic-speaking peoples are the largest ethnic group on Earth. The descendants of the ancient Turks settled on all continents, but most of them live in the indigenous territory - in the Altai Mountains and in the south of Siberia. Many peoples managed to preserve their identity within the borders of independent states.

Languages ​​that belong to the Turkic language group. Turkic group of languages: peoples, classification, distribution and interesting facts. Modern Turkic languages