home biology tutor The teacher is a student as a subject of educational activity. Modern student as a subject of the educational process. Student as a subject of educational activity

The teacher is a student as a subject of educational activity. Modern student as a subject of the educational process. Student as a subject of educational activity

Lesson 6

Issues for discussion

1. What are the characteristics of subjects educational process can be considered basic?

2. Features of the organization of educational activities:

Junior student;

Teenager;

High school student.

3. How to develop a student's cognitive interest?

4. Which of modern concepts education, in your opinion, most fully meet the development of the student's subjective qualities?

Main literature

1. Abulkhanova K.A. On the subject of mental activity. - M., 1973.

2. Brushlinsky A.V. Problems of psychology of the subject. - M., 1994.

3. Winter I. Pedagogical psychology, 1997.

4. Kurganov S.Yu. Child and adult in educational dialogue. - M., 1989.

5. Secrets of skillful leadership. /Comp. I. V. Lipsits. - M., 1998.

additional literature :

1. Kan-Kalik V.A. Teacher about pedagogical communication. - M., 1981.

2. Kapterev P.F. Didactic essays.

3. Rakhmatshaeva V.A. Grammar of communication: step by step to trust and mutual understanding. - M., 1995.

Guidelines The category of the subject is relevant in psychology educational activities. It is important to consider this problem through the internal connection between the personal and the subjective. “To be a person ... means to be a subject of activity, communication, self-consciousness,” notes V.A. Petrovsky.

It is necessary to dwell on the discussion of the specific features of the subjects of the educational process, the conditions for optimal development and self-development of the subject at different age stages.

We need to consider the special role research activities in the development of student subjectivity.

RESEARCH OF MOTIVATION OF EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITY OF SCHOOLCHILDREN

Students are offered a card on which a number of possible motives for learning activities are indicated. Everyone should carefully read all the points of the questionnaire and underline those that correspond to his aspirations. You do not need to sign the form. An example of the content of the questionnaire is given below.

1. I study because it is interesting.

2. I study because I want to know more.

3. I study because my parents force me to.

4. I study because it will be easier to get a job later.

5. I am learning because everyone is learning now.

6. I study because I like the teacher.

7. I study because .... (indicate your aspiration).

The obtained data are entered into a table.

Exercise. Identify the prevailing motives for teaching schoolchildren. Try to establish under the influence of what factors they have developed. Draw conclusions about a possible correction in order to develop positive motives for learning.

Each student has individual personal and activity characteristics, i.e. features of inclinations (individual-typological prerequisites), abilities, intellectual activity, cognitive style, level of claims, self-esteem, performance; features of the performance of activities (planning, organization, accuracy, etc.). Each student is characterized own style activities, in particular educational, attitude towards it, learning ability.

At the same time, all students at a certain stage of the educational system are characterized by initial common and typical features and traits for them. This is explained by the fact that each educational level is correlated, as a rule, with a certain period in a person's life. In addition, one should take into account the specifics (content, form) of the levels of education themselves, we correlate not only with age characteristics, but also with the law of cumulativeness, building up, increasing knowledge; structuring individual experience; building an individual thesaurus as an ordered structure of verbal intelligence. Because of this, the abstract-typical subjects "schoolchild", "student" are distinguished by public consciousness as certain generalizations based on these two (age and socio-cultural) grounds.

Age periodization is one of the complex and controversial problems of psychology. In line with understanding mental development domestic psychology as an internally contradictory process associated with the emergence of mental and personal neoplasms, L.S. Vygotsky, following P.P. Blonsky, considers certain epochs, stages, phases in the general scheme of turning points, or developmental crises. At the same time, the criteria for their differentiation are, firstly, neoplasms that characterize the essence of each age; secondly, the dynamics of the transition from one period to another, which can be sharp, critical and slow, gradual, lytic. D.B. Elkonin, accepting the scheme of L.S. Vygotsky for the initial one, defines the periods after the crisis of 7 years as follows: the crisis of 7 years, primary school age, the crisis of 11-12 years, adolescence (noting that the period of early adolescence also stands out). This scheme is built almost entirely on a pedagogical basis.

D.B. Elkonin: “what causes the appearance of a corresponding neoplasm in a critical period is the general line of subsequent development in a stable period”. The pedagogical system may “not keep up” with changes in the child’s development (L.S. Vygotsky), as a result of which there is an effect of difficult education, poor progress, one of the reasons for which lies in the very dynamics of the child’s age formation.

All over the world, students are named according to the nature of the educational system in which they study (schoolchildren, high school students, realists, students). Within these names, in accordance with the age and level of education, more fractional designations are distinguished. This is the so-called cultural-historical differentiation that underlies the socio-cultural age periodization of the student's subjective existence. It is connected with the nature of the child's activities in public institutions (institutions) of the state. Hence the names of the periods according to the levels of education - preschool, school (junior, middle, senior), student. This testifies to the actual pedagogical criteria for the periodization of subjective existence at the age stage from 6 to 22-23 years. The following periodization is generally accepted: pre-preschool (3-5 years), pre-school (5-7 years), junior school (7-11 years), adolescence (middle school) age (11-15 years), early adolescence, or senior school age (15-18 years old) and student age (late youth, early maturity) - 17-18 years old - 22-23 years old (according to B.G. Ananiev).

Each age period in a person's life is determined by a combination of many factors that also act as its indicators. D.B. Elkonin names three main indicators, factors that determine both the development itself and its periods:

A certain social situation of development or that particular form of relationship that the child enters into with adults in a given period;

The main or leading type of activity;

Basic mental neoplasms (in each period they exist from individual mental processes to personality traits).

All these indicators, according to D.B. Elkonin, are in a complex relationship of interaction and mutual influence. However, if for L.S. Vygotsky, the main criterion for development was neoplasms, for D.B. Elkonina, V.V. Davydov, who developed the activity concept, the main one was the type of leading activity. A.V. Petrovsky considers the social situation of development, more precisely, the conscious environment, the community, to be the determining criterion. Significant for educational psychology in this approach A.V. Petrovsky is the socio-psychological aspect of age periodization, which implies the concepts of a stable and changing environment, the relationship of personality development and environmental characteristics, the change and continuity of adaptation processes to a group, environment, individualization in it and further integration.

“Transitions, personalities to new stages of development under these conditions are not determined by those psychological patterns that would express the moments of self-movement of a developing personality, on the contrary, they are determined from the outside by the inclusion of an individual in one or another institution of socialization or are due to objective changes within this institution, from which it turns out dependent personality in its formation. It is only because society creates schools that the school age arises as a stage in the development of the individual.

The consideration of a schoolchild and a student as subjects of educational activity is based on the theses of D.B. Elkonin: the leading activity of the child (play, learning activities, personal communication, etc.) takes place in a certain social environment, developmental situations, which together form mental and personal neoplasms. It should also be taken into account that during historical development the general social conditions in which the child develops change, the content and methods of teaching change, and all this cannot but affect the change age stages development. Each age is a qualitatively special stage of mental development and is characterized by many changes that together make up the originality of the structure of the child's personality at a given stage of his development.

The younger student as a subject of educational activity. The junior schoolchild is the beginning of the social existence of a person as a subject of activity, in this case educational. In this capacity, the younger student is characterized, first of all, by readiness for it. It is determined by the level of physiological (anatomical and morphological) and mental, primarily intellectual development, which provides the opportunity to learn. In the studies of L.I. Bozhovich, D.B. Elkonina, N.G., N.I. Gutkina and others describe the main indicators of a child’s readiness for school: the formation of his internal position, semiotic function, arbitrariness, the ability to focus on a system of rules, etc. Readiness for schooling means the formation of an attitude towards school, teaching, knowledge as a joy of discovery, entry into new world, adult world. This is a readiness for new duties, responsibility to the school, teacher, class. Expectation of the new, interest in it is the basis of learning motivation elementary school student. It is on interest as an emotional experience of a cognitive need that the internal motivation of educational activity is based, when the cognitive need of a younger student “meets” with the content of education that meets this need.

A child's readiness for school is determined by the satisfaction of a number of requirements. These include: general physical development child, possession of a sufficient amount of knowledge, possession of "everyday" self-service skills, culture of behavior, communication, elementary labor; speech proficiency; prerequisites for mastering writing (development of small muscles of the hand); the ability to cooperate; desire to learn. The intellectual, personal, activity qualities necessary for a student as a subject of educational activity are formed literally from the moment of birth. The level of their formation largely depends on the entry of the child into school life, his attitude to school and learning success, involvement in learning activities.

AT primary school the primary schoolchildren form the main elements of the leading educational activity during this period, the necessary educational skills and abilities. During this period, forms of thinking develop that ensure the further assimilation of the system of scientific knowledge, the development of scientific, theoretical thinking. Here the prerequisites for independent orientation in teaching are formed, Everyday life. During this period, a psychological restructuring takes place, "requiring from the child not only significant mental stress, but also great physical endurance."

At this age, awareness of oneself as a subject of teaching begins. The younger student, as a subject of educational activity, develops and forms in it himself, mastering new methods of analysis, synthesis, generalization, and classification. In the context of purposeful developmental learning, according to V.V. Davydov, this formation is carried out faster and more efficiently due to the systemic and generalized development of knowledge. In the educational activity of a younger student, an attitude is formed towards oneself, towards the world, towards society, towards other people, and, most importantly, this attitude is realized mainly through this activity as an attitude towards the content and methods of teaching, the teacher, class, school, etc. d.

It is significant that in connection with a change in living conditions, switching from family or kindergarten Dominant authorities change somewhat at the school of the junior schoolchild. Along with the authority of parents comes the authority of the teacher.

A teenager as a subject of educational activity. In the middle school (adolescent) age (from 10-11 to 14-15 years old), the leading role is played by communication with peers in the context of a teenager's own educational activity. The activities inherent in children of this age include such types as educational, social-organizational, sports, artistic, labor. When performing these types of useful activities, adolescents develop a conscious desire to participate in socially necessary work, to become socially significant. He learns to build communication in various teams, taking into account the norms of relationships adopted in them, reflection of his own behavior, the ability to assess the possibilities of his "I". This is the most difficult transitional age from childhood to adulthood, when a central mental, personal neoplasm of a person arises - a “sense of adulthood”.

The specific social activity of a teenager lies in a great susceptibility, sensitivity to learning the norms, values and ways of behavior that exist in the world of adults and in their relationships. One of the leading researchers of adolescence D.I. Feldstein emphasizes that the social maturation of a person, the structuring of his self-knowledge and self-determination as an actively acting subject is determined by the transformation of the general position “I in relation to society” into two positions that replace each other: “I am in society” and “I and society. In this period, D.I. Feldstein distinguishes three stages: locally capricious (10-11 years old), when the need for adult recognition is aggravated; “legal-significant” (12-13 years old), characterized by the need for social recognition, for socially approved useful activity, which is expressed in the speech form “I also have the right, I can, I must”; "affirmative-effective" (14-15 years old), when the readiness to prove oneself, to apply one's strength, dominates.

By the end of the period of early adolescence, students begin to realize the need for independent choice further program education, which implies the formation of fairly stable interests and preferences, orientation in various areas of work and socially useful activities.

If for the younger school age educational activity is the leading one (entering into it, accepting the role of the subject of this activity, forming educational motives, mastering its subject content and structure, etc.), then for a middle-aged schoolchild (teenager), socially useful activities in various forms act as the leading one , in line with which both intimate and personal communication with peers, and very important communication with members of the opposite sex. At the same time, learning activity becomes, as it were, an ongoing activity - it “provides” the individualization of a teenager. In the features of the choice of means, methods of educational activity, he asserts himself. Simultaneous adaptation to one new community, individualization in another, already familiar, and subsequent integration into it are complexly intertwined socio-psychological processes that are most significant for a teenager.

Its main value is a system of relations with peers, adults, imitation of a conscious or unconsciously followed “ideal”, aspiration to the future (underestimation of the present). Defending his independence, a teenager forms and develops on the basis of reflection his self-awareness, the image of "I", the ratio of the real and ideal "I". Based on the intellectualization of mental processes, their qualitative change occurs along the line of ever greater arbitrariness, mediation.

At this age, a teenager is looking for means and ways to indicate his individuality. In this regard, realizing to the maximum extent the ability to be ideally represented in his friends, a teenager mobilizes all his internal resources for the active transmission of his individuality (well-read, athletic success, "experience" in relations between the sexes, courage bordering on bravado, special manner in dancing, etc.), intensifies the search in the reference group of persons for him, who can provide his optimal personalization. At the same time, all three microphases are realized - adaptation, individualization and integration (A.V. Petrovsky).

As a subject of educational activity, a teenager is characterized by a tendency to assert his position of subjective exclusivity, "individuality", a desire (especially manifested in boys) to stand out in some way. This can enhance cognitive motivation if it correlates with the very content of educational activity - its subject, means, methods of solving educational problems. The desire for “exclusivity” is also included in the achievement motivation, manifesting itself in such components as “reward”, “success”. Learning motivation as a unity of cognitive motivation and achievement motivation is refracted in a teenager through the prism of narrowly personal, significant and really acting motives of group, social life. The social activity of a teenager is directed to the assimilation of norms, values and ways of behavior, which, being represented in the content of educational activities and the conditions for its organization, meets the satisfaction of these motives. That is why it is important to implement all the principles of education that activate the intellectual activity of a teenager: its problematization, dialogization; individualization, active-effective forms of organization of assimilation. The content of educational activity should be included in the general socio-cultural context of modern literature, music, painting, dance, as well as in the current conditions of socio-economic, life and everyday relations.

Senior student as a subject of educational activity. With a focus on learning, a teenager passes into the status of a senior student. An older student as a subject of learning activity is a person who has made a choice (or has submitted to the choice of a reference environment for him) to continue learning. This is what determines its specificity as a subject. A senior student (the period of early youth from 14-15 to 17 years old) enters a new social situation of development immediately upon transition from high school to senior classes or to new educational institutions - gymnasiums, colleges, schools. This situation is characterized not only by new teams, but also, most importantly, by the focus on the future: the choice of lifestyle, profession, reference groups of people. The need for choice is dictated by life situation initiated by the parents and directed by the educational institution. Accordingly, during this period, value-oriented activity acquires primary importance. It is associated with the desire for autonomy, the right to be oneself.

During this period, high school students begin to make life plans and consciously think about choosing a profession. This choice is dictated not only by an orientation towards the vital requirement of a vocation, towards a field of activity in which a person can be of maximum use to others, as a doctor, teacher, researcher, but also by the conjuncture, benefit, and practical value of this profession in a specific situation of the country's social development.

The need for self-determination that arises at the turn of adolescence and youth (L.I. Bozhovich) not only affects the nature of the educational activity of a high school student, but sometimes determines it. This applies, first of all, to the choice of an educational institution, classes with in-depth training, ignoring subjects of a particular cycle: humanitarian or natural science. On the one hand, this is an expression of the orientation of the individual, professional orientation, but, on the other hand, it is a failure to fulfill the requirements of the general educational program of the educational institution, the basis of discontent and claims from teachers, parents, the ground for conflicts.

A high school student as a subject of educational activity, due to the specifics of the social situation of development in which he finds himself, is characterized by a qualitatively new content of this activity. First, along with internal cognitive motives for mastering knowledge, broad social and narrow-personal external motives appear in subjects that have a personal semantic value, among which achievement motives occupy a large place. Educational motivation changes qualitatively in structure, because for a high school student, learning activity itself is a means of realizing the life plans of the future. Teaching as an activity aimed at mastering knowledge characterizes a few, the main internal motive for most students is result orientation.

The main subject of educational activity of a high school student, i.e. what it is aimed at is the structural organization, integration, systematization of individual experience due to its expansion, addition, introduction of new information. The development of independence, a creative approach to decisions, the ability to make such decisions, analyze existing ones and critically constructively comprehend them also constitute the content of the educational activity of a high school student.

A high school student develops a special form of learning activity. It includes elements of analysis, research in the general context of some already realized or perceived as the need for professional orientation, personal self-determination. The authority of parents who participate in the personal self-determination of a high school student is increasing.

The readiness of the student for professional and personal self-determination includes a system of value orientations, clearly expressed professional orientation and professional interests, developed forms of theoretical thinking, mastery of methods scientific knowledge, the ability of self-education. This is the final stage of maturation and personality formation, when the student's value-oriented activity is most fully revealed. At this age, on the basis of the student's desire for autonomy, a complete structure of self-consciousness is formed in him, personal reflection develops, life plans and prospects are realized, and a level of aspiration is formed.

Student as a subject of educational activity. Student age (18-25 years) is a special period in a person's life, primarily due to the fact that, according to the general meaning and according to the main laws, the age from 18 to 25 years is rather the initial link in the chain of mature ages than the final one in the chain of periods. child development.

Students are a special social category, a specific community of people organizationally united by an institute higher education. Historically, this socio-professional category has developed since the emergence of the first universities in the 11th-12th centuries. Students include people purposefully, systematically mastering knowledge and professional skills, engaged, as expected, in diligent academic work. How social group it is characterized by a professional orientation, the formation of a stable attitude towards future profession which are a consequence of the correctness of the professional choice, the adequacy and completeness of the student's understanding of the chosen profession. The latter includes knowledge of the requirements that the profession makes and the conditions of professional activity. The results of the research indicate that the level of a student's understanding of the profession (adequate - inadequate) directly correlates with the level of his attitude to learning: the less a student knows about the profession, the less positive is his attitude to learning. At the same time, it is shown that the majority of students have a positive attitude towards learning.

In the socio-psychological aspect, students, compared with other groups of the population, are distinguished by the highest educational level, the most active consumption of culture and high level cognitive motivation. At the same time, students are a social community characterized by the highest social activity and a fairly harmonious combination of intellectual and social maturity. Taking into account this peculiarity of the student body underlies the teacher's attitude to each student as a partner. pedagogical communication, an interesting personality for the teacher.

An essential indicator of a student as a subject of educational activity is his ability to perform all types and forms of this activity. However, the results of special studies show that most students do not know how to listen and write down lectures, take notes on literature (in most cases, only 18-20% of the lecture material is recorded). So, according to V.T. Lisovsky, only 28.8% of students were able to speak to an audience, 18.6% to argue, and 16.3% to give an analytical assessment of problems. Based on the material of a specific sociological study, it was shown that only 37.5% of students strove to study well, 53.6% did not always try, and 8% did not strive at all for good study. But even among those who aspired to study well, studies did not go well in 67.2% of cases. Changed in the last decade quantitative indicators these skills and attitudes towards learning as a whole, the general picture of their incomplete formation remains.

The psychological structure of educational activity is made up of its motives, goals, funds and the intended (or achieved) final result. Any activity, including educational, is always based on some needs of the individual (subject of activity), but they are not directly included in the structure of activity, since they precede it and, having formed long before it begins, initiate it.

Educational activity differs from any practical activity in that it is aimed at transforming not an external object, but the very subject of activity - the student. content educational activities are the foundations of knowledge in the field of various sciences, ie theory. Theory in the form of scientific concepts as a generalized knowledge that reflects the essence of objects and phenomena, abstracted from their specific sensually perceived properties (particular external features), is present in the educational material of any level of schoolchildren, starting from the 1st grade (an example of theoretical concepts is “sound ”, “letter”, “word”, “sentence”, “value”, “number”, “addition”, “subtraction”, etc.). There is more and more theoretical knowledge as the child moves from the lower grades to the older ones, and the child, acquiring not only these scientific knowledge as such, masters the ability to think theoretically, and thereby develops mentally (intellectually). So, the content of educational activity is theoretical knowledge, and its result is the intellectual development of the student, mastering the ability to think theoretically with the help of this knowledge and the formation of the ability to independently and confidently navigate scientific and practical issues.

The result of educational activity or the solution of a learning problem is, therefore, the assimilation of some general method of transformative actions with the object of activity (the text of the exercise in the Russian language, tasks and examples in mathematics or physics, geography or history - in any subject), which is the development mental capacity. The concept of assimilation should be understood not just as the memorization of knowledge, as many mistakenly believe, but the ability to act with knowledge of the matter, when knowledge is understood, comprehended and turned into the ability to operate with them in solving various life tasks, that is, they have become their own, turned into a kind of intellectual ability, instrument of one's own mental activity.

Properly organized learning activities should lead to such assimilation educational material when students not only have knowledge, but also know how to apply it practically (have “knowledge plus skills”).

It is necessary to organize the educational activity of students in such a way that it encourages students to actively and skillfully acquire this knowledge themselves, by the power of their own mental (analytical-synthetic) actions. This can be encouraged only by a system of strictly defined pedagogical actions carried out sequentially.

Educational activity, like any activity, is an active interaction of the subject with the surrounding reality, carried out to satisfy his needs. However, the needs themselves are outside the activity. An active stimulus to activity is a need, but in the activity itself it always manifests itself not by itself, but as a motive for this activity, which encourages a person to act: set a goal, find the necessary means to successfully achieve it and achieve a certain result, which to a greater or lesser extent will meet the goal.

Thus, in general psychological structure educational activity is the same as for any other activity: motive - goal - means - result. Knowing what result needs to be achieved in the educational activities of schoolchildren (to achieve the assimilation of theoretical knowledge), the teacher builds his own activity accordingly: he forms an appropriate motive in students (interest in theory), sets a goal adequate to the future result (predicts and projects the future result) and chooses the most effective means (methods and techniques) of training that provide this result (achievement of the goal).

Learning activity has an external structure, consisting of such basic components as motivation; learning objectives in certain situations in various forms of assignments; learning activities ; control, turning into self-control; grade turning into self-assessment. Each of the components of the structure of this activity has its own characteristics. At the same time, being an intellectual activity by nature, learning activity is characterized by the same structure as any other intellectual act, namely: the presence of a motive, a plan (design, program), execution (implementation) and control.

Let us consider in more detail each of the components of the external structure of educational activity.

Motivation, is not only one of the main components of the structural organization of educational activities, but also, which is very important, an essential characteristic of the subject of this activity. It can be internal or external in relation to the activity, but it always remains an internal characteristic of the personality as the subject of this activity.

Learning motivation is defined as a particular type of motivation included in the activities of learning, learning activities. Like any other type, learning motivation is determined by a number of factors specific to this activity:

It is determined by the educational system itself, by the educational institution where educational activities are carried out;

Organization of the educational process;

The subjective characteristics of the student (age, gender, intellectual development, abilities, level of aspirations, self-esteem, his interaction with other students, etc.);

The subjective features of the teacher and, above all, the system of his relations to the student, to the case;

Fifth, the specifics of the subject.

Learning motivation, like any other kind of it, is systemic. It is characterized by direction, stability and dynamism. So, in the works of L.I. Bozovic and her collaborators, on the material of the study of the educational activity of schoolchildren, it was noted that it is motivated by a hierarchy of motives, in which either internal motives associated with the content of this activity and its implementation, or broad social motives associated with the child’s need to take a certain position in system of social relations. Accordingly, when analyzing the motivation of educational activity, it is necessary not only to determine the dominant stimulus (motive), but also to take into account the entire structure motivational sphere person. Considering this area in relation to the teachings, A.K. Markova emphasizes the hierarchy of its structure. So, it includes: the need for learning, the meaning of learning, the motive for learning, purpose, emotions, attitude and interest.

Learning activity is stimulated primarily by an internal motive, when the cognitive need "meets" with the subject of activity - the development of a generalized mode of action - and is "objectified" in it, at the same time it is stimulated by a variety of external motives, for example, self-affirmation, prestige, duty, necessity, achievements, etc. Based on the study of students' educational activities, it was shown that among the sociogenic needs greatest influence its effectiveness is influenced by the need for achievement, which is understood as the desire of a person to improve the results of his activities. Satisfaction with learning depends on the degree to which this need is satisfied. This need makes students concentrate more on their studies and at the same time increases their social activity. A significant, but ambiguous, impact on learning is the need for communication and dominance. The motives of the intellectual-cognitive plan are especially important for educational activity. The motives of the intellectual plane are conscious, understandable, and actually acting. They are perceived by a person as a thirst for knowledge, the need (need) for their appropriation, the desire to broaden one's horizons, deepen, systematize knowledge. This is precisely the group of motives that correlates with specifically human cognitive activity, its intellectual need, characterized, according to L.I. Bozovic, positive emotional tone and insatiability.

To analyze the motivational sphere of schoolchildren's teaching, it is important to characterize their attitude towards it. So, A.K. Markova, defining three types of attitude - negative, neutral and positive, gives a clear differentiation of the latter on the basis of the student's involvement in the educational process. This is very important for managing the educational activities of the student. The author subdivides a positive attitude to learning into a) positive, implicit, active, meaning the student's readiness to get involved in learning; b) positive, active, cognitive; c) positive, active, personal-biased, meaning the involvement of the student as a subject of communication, as an individual and a member of society. In other words, the motivational sphere of the subject of educational activity or his motivation is not only multicomponent, but also heterogeneous and multilevel, which once again convinces of the extreme complexity of not only its formation and accounting, but even an adequate analysis.

The second in a row, but essentially the main component of the structure of educational activity is learning task , which is solved as an act of performing an activity and can be considered solved only when there have been predetermined changes in the subject. The concept of “learning task” should not be confused with a specific task solved in a lesson in any subject, such as doing exercises in the Russian language when studying spelling or solving examples in mathematics for raising to a power, extracting a root or taking logarithms. learning task as psychological concept means such a task, the solution of which does not come down to obtaining a specific answer after the transformation of the educational object (lexical or mathematical material, as in these examples), but leads to the student learning some general way to perform actions with this class of objects, makes him able to take logarithms, extract the root , or raise any mathematical expression to a power, or write correctly in Russian. It is offered to the student as a specific educational task (the formulation of which is extremely important for its solution and result) in a specific educational situation, the totality of which represents the educational process itself as a whole.

The main difference between the learning task and any other tasks, according to D.B. Elkonin lies in the fact that its goal and result is to change the subject himself, and not the objects with which the subject acts.

Almost all learning activities should be presented as a system of learning tasks. They are given in certain learning situations and involve certain learning activities - subject, control and auxiliary (technical), such as schematization, underlining, writing out, etc.

The educational task, like any other, is currently considered as a systemic education (G.A. Ball), in which two components are required: the subject of the task in the initial state and the model of the required state of the subject of the task. A task is a complex system of information about some phenomenon, object, process, in which only part of the information is clearly defined, and the rest is unknown. It can only be found on the basis of a solution to a problem or information formulated in such a way that there is inconsistency, contradiction between individual concepts, provisions, requiring the search for new knowledge, proof, transformation, agreement: etc.

The composition of the learning task is considered in detail in the works of L.M. Fridman. In any task, including the educational one, the goal (requirement), objects that are part of the task condition, and their functions are distinguished. In some tasks, methods and means of solving are indicated (they are given in an explicit or, more often, in a hidden form).

In the interpretation of L.M. Fridman, any task includes the same parts:

subject area - a class of fixed designated objects, about which in question;

the relationships that connect these objects;

task requirement - an indication of the purpose of solving the problem, i.e. what needs to be established in the course of the decision;

task operator (task method) - a set of those actions (operations) that must be performed on the condition of the problem in order to complete its solution.

The solution method is correlated with the subjective characteristics of the human solver, which determine not only the choice and sequence of operations, but also the overall solution strategy. Solving the problem in various ways provides great opportunities for improvement of educational activity and development of the subject. When solving a problem in one way, the goal of the student is to find the correct answer; solving the problem in several ways, he faces the choice of the most concise, economical solution, which requires updating many theoretical knowledge, known methods, techniques and creating new ones for this situation.

To solve the problem, the subject-solver must have a certain set of means that are not included in the problem and are attracted from outside. Solving tools can be material (tools, machines), materialized (texts, diagrams, formulas) and ideal (knowledge that is involved by the solver).

E.I. Mashbits highlights the essential features of the learning task from the perspective of managing learning activities:

Focus on the subject, because its solution involves changes not in the "task structure" itself, but in the subject who decides it.

The learning task is ambiguous or indefinite. Students can invest in the task a slightly different meaning than the teaching one. This phenomenon occurs due to various reasons: due to the inability to understand the requirements of the task, mixing different relationships. Often it depends on the motivation of the subject.

To achieve any goal, it is required to solve not one, but several tasks, and the solution of one task can contribute to the achievement of various goals of the exercise. Therefore, to achieve any educational goal, a certain set of tasks is required, where each takes its place.

In the process of learning activity, a learning task is given (exists) in a specific learning situation. The learning situation can be collaborative or conflict. At the same time, if the substantive conflict, i.e. clash of different positions, relationships, points of view regarding the subject, promotes learning, then interpersonal, i.e. the conflict between the schoolchildren themselves as people, individuals, prevents it.

The content of the learning situation can be neutral or problematic. Both types of these situations are presented in training, but the organization of the second one requires a lot of effort from the teacher (teacher), therefore, when he realizes the importance of problematizing learning, problem situations are less common in the educational process than neutral ones. The creation of a problematic situation implies the existence of a problem (task), i.e. the correlation of the new and the known (given), the educational and cognitive needs of the student and his ability (opportunity) to solve this problem (V. Okon, A.M. Matyushkin, A.V. Brushlinsky, M.I. Makhmutov, etc.).

One of the important structural components activity is action - the morphological unit of any activity. This is the most important "formative" of human activity. "Human activity does not exist otherwise than in the form of an action or a chain of actions, ... activity is usually carried out by some set of actions that are subject to particular goals that can stand out from the general goal." According to A.N. Leontiev, the object of action is nothing but its conscious immediate goal. In other words, if the motive is correlated with the activity as a whole, then the actions correspond to a specific goal. Due to the fact that the activity itself is represented by actions, it is both motivated and goal-directed (goal-oriented), while actions only meet the goal.

As emphasized in the theory of activity by A.N. Leontiev, “there is a peculiar relationship between activity and action. The motive of activity can, shifting, move to the subject (goal) of the action. As a result of this, action turns into activity ... It is in this way that new activities are born, new relationships to reality arise.

Essential for the analysis of training actions is the moment of their transition to the level of operations. According to A.N. Leontiev, operations are methods of action that meet certain conditions in which its goal is given. A conscious purposeful action in learning, repeated many times, being included in other more complex actions, gradually ceases to be the object of the student's conscious control, becoming a way to perform this more complex action. These are the so-called conscious operations, former conscious actions turned into operations. A strengthened action becomes a condition for the execution of another, more complex one and passes to the level of an operation, i.e. like a technique for performing an activity. At the same time, automation of movements (according to N.A. Bernstein) in the process of developing new motor skills leads to unloading of active attention.

Along with "conscious" operations in activity, there are operations that were not previously recognized as purposeful actions. They arose as a result of "adapting" to certain conditions of life. For example, in the language development of a child, his intuitive “adjustment” of the ways of grammatical formulation of an utterance to the norms of adult speech communication. The child is not aware of these actions, which is why they cannot be defined as such. Consequently, they are self-stopping operations, intuitively formed as a result of imitation, his internal, intellectual actions.

In the general structure of educational activity, a significant place is given to control actions (self-control) and estimates (self-assessments). This is due to the fact that any other educational action becomes arbitrary, regulated only in the presence of monitoring and evaluation in the structure of activity. Control over the performance of an action is carried out by a feedback mechanism or feedback afferentation in the overall structure of activity as a complex functional system (P.K. Anokhin).

In the general scheme of the functional system, the main link where the comparison of the “model of the required future” (according to N.A. Bernshtein) or the “image of the result of the action” (P.K. Anokhin) and information about its actual implementation takes place is defined as the “action acceptor” (P.K. Anokhin). The result of comparing what was supposed to be obtained and what is obtained is the basis for continuing the action (in case of their coincidence) or correction (in case of mismatch). Thus, it can be argued that control involves, as it were, three links: 1) model, image required, desired result of the action; 2) comparison process this image and real action and 3) decision-making about the continuation or correction of the action. These three links represent the structure of the subject's internal control over its implementation.

In the works of O.A. Konopkina, A.K. Osnitsky and others, the problem of control (self-control) is included in the general problems of personal and subject self-regulation.

The significance of the role of control (self-control) and evaluation (self-assessment) in the structure of activity is due to the fact that it reveals the internal mechanism for the transition of the external into the internal, the interpsychic into the intrapsychic (L.S. Vygotsky), i.e. the actions of control and evaluation of the teacher into the actions of self-control and self-esteem of the student. At the same time, the psychological concept of L.S. Vygotsky, according to which any mental function appears on the scene of life twice, passing the way "from interpsy, external, carried out in communication with other people, to intrapsychic", i.e. to the inner, one's own, i.e. the concept of internalization allows us to interpret the formation of one's own internal control, or, more precisely, self-control, as a phased transition. This transition is prepared by the questions of the teacher, fixing the most important, the main. The teacher creates general program such control, which serves as the basis of self-control.

P.P. Blonsky outlined four stages of the manifestation of self-control in relation to the assimilation of material:

1) is characterized by the absence of any self-control. The student at this stage has not mastered the material and, accordingly, cannot control anything;

2) complete self-control. At this stage, the student checks the completeness and correctness of the reproduction of the learned material;

3) the stage of selective self-control, in which the student controls, checks only the main points on the questions;

4) there is no visible self-control, it is carried out, as it were, on the basis of past experience, on the basis of some minor details, will accept.

Similarly to self-control, the formation of substantive self-assessment in the structure of activity takes place. A.V. Zakharova noted an important feature in this process - the transition of self-assessment into quality, a characteristic of the subject of activity - his self-assessment. This determines one more position of the importance of control (self-control), assessment (self-assessment) for the overall structure of educational activity. Accordingly, it is determined by the fact that it is in these components that the connection between the activity and the personal is focused, it is in them that the subject procedural action turns into a personal, subjective quality, property. This situation once again testifies to the internal continuity of the two components of the personal-activity approach to the educational process, its expediency and realism.

Pupil as a subject of educational activity.

The child becomes the subject of educational activity from the moment of entering the school.
The younger student, as a subject of educational activity, develops and forms within its framework, mastering new ways of mental actions and operations: analysis, synthesis, generalization, classification, etc. It is in educational activity that the main relations of the younger student with society are carried out and the main qualities are formed in it. his personality (self-awareness and self-esteem, motivation to achieve success, diligence, independence, ideas about morality, creative and other abilities) and cognitive processes (arbitrariness, productivity), as well as his attitude towards himself, the world, society, people around him. This general attitude is manifested through the child's attitude to learning, the teacher, comrades, and the school as a whole. The hierarchy of authorities changes in the junior schoolchild: along with the parents, the teacher becomes a significant figure, and in most cases his authority is even higher, since he organizes the leading educational activity for junior schoolchildren, is the source of the knowledge gained.
A teenager as a subject of educational activity is characterized by the fact that for him it ceases to be the leading one, although it remains the main one, occupying most of his time. For a teenager, social activity becomes the leading one, carried out within the framework of other types of activity: organizational, cultural, sports, labor, informal communication. In all these activities, a teenager seeks to establish himself as a person, to become a social significant person. He assumes different social roles, learns to build communication in different teams, taking into account the norms of relationships adopted in them. Educational activity becomes for a teenager one of the types of ongoing activity that can ensure his self-affirmation and individualization. A teenager manifests himself in studies, chooses some means and methods of its implementation and rejects others, prefers some academic subjects and ignores others, behaves in a certain way at school, trying to attract the attention of his peers in the first place, achieves a more equal position in relations with teachers . Thus, he asserts himself, his subjective exclusivity and individuality, striving to stand out in some way.
A high school student as a subject of educational activity is specific in that he has already made a certain choice to continue his studies. His social situation of development is characterized not only by a new team that arises during the transition to high school or secondary special education. educational institution, but also mainly focus on the future: the choice of profession, future lifestyle. Accordingly, in the senior grades, the most important activity for the student is the search for value orientations, associated with the desire for autonomy, the right to be oneself, a person who is different from those around him, even those closest to him.
A high school student consciously thinks about the choice of a profession and, as a rule, tends to make a decision about it himself. Given vital circumstance to the greatest extent determines the nature of his educational activity: it becomes educational and professional.

Modernization general education requires a transition from the traditional attitude to the formation of predominantly “knowledge, abilities, skills” to the education of personality traits necessary for life in the new conditions of an open society, to assisting the pupil in becoming a subject of his life. Despite the changing atmosphere of public life, its democratization and humanization, educational work in mass school practice is still carried out "from above" and is a set of standard methods and forms. pedagogical activity, prescribing to the educated the role of objects of influence, and not subjects of social life, self-development and their own life-creation. The student, being the object of the pedagogical activity of the teacher, becomes the subject of educational and cognitive activity, which is organized by the teacher. But the student acts not as an independent subject of cognitive activity, but as a subject that reproduces in his educational and cognitive activity the structure and content of the teacher's pedagogical activity. A person can become a full-fledged subject of cognitive activity only when he masters the forms, methods, methods, principles and means of cognitive activity. The paradox is also that the child cannot yet appreciate the practical significance of the sciences studied at school: he does not have the corresponding life, practical experience. This is one of the reasons for the low educational cognitive activity schoolchildren: they study science because they are forced to study it.

Teacher and students as subjects of the educational process

The subject of UD is an initiator, an agent capable of not only appropriating the world of objects and ideas, but also producing them, transforming, and creating new ones.

Signs of the subject of the educational process:

· realizes and accepts the goals, objectives, settings of the educational process at the present and future stages of education;

· masters the basic procedures of intellectual work;

organizes a personal time budget for the implementation of educational tasks qualitatively, in sufficient volume within the scheduled time frame;

carries out purposeful self-education and self-education;

achieves high results in educational and cognitive activities;

Shows activity in the performance of functions social role and in overcoming the difficulties that arise;

· is satisfied with the expanded intellectual and professional opportunities, prospects for growth and self-assertion.

If the student is the subject of the educational process, then his consciousness, goals, activity are aimed at participation in this process, at its improvement.

The student as a subject of UD does not develop in direct proportion to the pedagogical influence on him, but according to the laws inherent in the psyche - the peculiarities of perception, understanding, memorization, the formation of will and character, the formation of general and special abilities, mastering the basics of professional skills; the student is not born a subject of activity, he becomes one under the influence of education.

AT pedagogical science There are two types of interaction between a teacher and a child: subject-object and subject-subject.

1. Subject-object relations. In pedagogical activity, the role of the subject is the teacher, and the role of the object is the pupil (child).

The teacher as a subject of pedagogical activity is characterized by goal-setting, activity, pedagogical self-awareness, the adequacy of self-esteem and the level of claims, etc. In this situation, the child acts as a fulfiller of the requirements and tasks set by the teacher. With a reasonable subject-object interaction, the positive qualities of children are formed and consolidated: diligence, discipline, responsibility; the child accumulates the experience of acquiring knowledge, masters the system, the orderliness of actions. However, as long as the child is an object pedagogical process, i.e. the motivation for activity will constantly come from the teacher, the cognitive development of the child will not be effective. The situation when the manifestation of initiative is not required, the restriction of independence often forms the negative aspects of the personality. The educator “sees” his pupils in a very one-sided way, mainly from the point of view of compliance / non-compliance with the norms of behavior and the rules of organized activities.

2. Subject-subjective relationships contribute to the development in children of the ability to cooperate, initiative, creativity, the ability to constructively resolve conflicts. Activated hardest job thinking processes, imagination, knowledge is activated, the necessary methods are selected, various skills are tested. All activity acquires personal significance for the child, valuable manifestations of activity and independence are formed, which, with a steady strengthening of the subject position, can become his personal qualities. The teacher in the subject-subject interaction understands his pupils more personally, such interaction is called personality-oriented. A student-oriented teacher maximally contributes to the development of the child's ability to realize his "I" in relations with other people and the world in its diversity, comprehend his actions, foresee their consequences, both for others and for himself. Pedagogical activity in this kind of interaction is dialogic in nature. M. Bakhtin believes that the child only in dialogue, entering into interaction with another subject, cognizes himself, through comparison with another, through a comparison of his choice and his choice.

Styles of pedagogical activity:

1. When democratic In the style of pedagogical activity, the child is regarded as an equal partner in communication and cognitive activity. The teacher involves children in decision-making, takes into account their opinions, encourages independence of judgment, takes into account not only academic performance, but also personal qualities. Methods of influence are motivation for action, advice, request. For teachers democratic style Interactions are characterized by greater professional stability, satisfaction with their profession.

2. When authoritarian style, the child is seen as an object of pedagogical influence, and not an equal partner. The teacher alone makes decisions, establishes strict control over the fulfillment of the requirements presented to them, uses his rights without taking into account the situation and the opinion of the child, does not justify his actions to him. As a result, children lose activity or carry it out only with the leading role of the educator, they show low self-esteem, aggressiveness. The main methods of influence of this style are the order, teaching. The teacher is characterized by low satisfaction with the profession and professional instability.

3. When liberal style, the teacher moves away from decision-making, transferring the initiative to children, colleagues. The organization and control of children's activities is carried out without a system, shows indecision, hesitation.

Each of these styles, revealing the attitude towards the interaction partner, determines its nature: from subordination, following - to partnership and to the absence of directed influence. It is essential that each of these styles presupposes the dominance of either monologic or dialogic forms of communication.

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1. Student as a subject of educational activity

General characteristics of the subject category.

The category of the subject, as you know, is one of the central ones in philosophy, especially in ontology (Aristotle, Descartes, Kant, Hegel). It attracts a lot of attention in modern psychological science(S.L. Rubinshtein, K.A. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya, A.V. Brushlinsky, V.A. Lektorsky). As S.L. Rubinstein, "the main task of philosophy (ontology) ... the task of revealing the subjects of various forms, modes of existence, various forms of movement." This also includes the task of revealing, defining the subjects of activity as one of the main forms of movement. The analysis of the subjects of educational activity, which includes its two interrelated forms - pedagogical and educational, lies in line with both general philosophical and specifically pedagogical tasks.

What are the characteristics of the subject from a general philosophical position? We present these characteristics, according to S.L. Rubinstein.

First, the category of the subject is always associated with the category of the object. Because of this, in the cognition of being, in the “opening of being to cognition”, in relation to this “knowable being” to the knowing person, S.L. Rubinshtein captures two interrelated aspects: “1) being as an objective reality, as an object of human awareness; 2) a person as a subject, as a cognizer, discovering being, realizing its self-consciousness.

Secondly, the cognizing subject, or "the subject of scientific knowledge is a social subject who is aware of the being cognized by him in socio-historically established forms." Here it is essential to emphasize the position of A.N. Leontiev that in general the opposition between the subjective and the objective is not absolute. "Their opposition is generated by development, and throughout its entire duration mutual transitions between them are preserved, destroying their "one-sidedness"."

Thirdly, a social subject can exist and be realized both in the activity and in the being of a particular individual.

Fourthly, considering the problem of the relationship between "I" and the other person, S.L. Rubinstein draws attention to the fact that "I" presupposes some activity and, conversely, "arbitrary, controlled, consciously regulated activity necessarily presupposes an actor, the subject of this activity - the "I" of a given individual." This provision acts as one of the main characteristics not only of the subject, but also of the activity itself.

Fifthly, the subject is a consciously acting person, whose self-consciousness is “awareness of oneself as a being who is aware of the world and changes it, as a subject, actor in the process of his activity - practical and theoretical, including the subject of the activity of awareness. This definition is received in the theory of S.L. Rubinstein's form of the aphorism "Man as the subject of life".

Sixthly, each specific subject is determined through his attitude towards another (as was noted by A. Smith, K. Marx in the theory of the mirror, according to which the person Peter, looking at Paul as in a mirror and accepting his assessments, forms self-esteem).

Seventh, each "I", representing both the individual and the universal, is a collective subject. “Each “I”, since it is the universality of “I”, is a collective subject, a community of subjects, a “republic of subjects”, a community of individuals; this "I" is really "we".

The eighth characteristic of the subject is that the subject of activity itself is formed and created in this activity, the deobjectification of which can reveal and determine the subject himself. According to S.L. Rubinstein, the subject in his deeds, in the acts of his creative amateur activity, is not only revealed and manifested; it is created and determined in them. Therefore, by what he does, you can determine what he is; the direction of his activity can determine and shape him. This is the basis for the possibility of pedagogy, at least pedagogy in a grand style.

Let us note one more, ninth, characteristic of the subject, which follows from the epistemological and psychological analysis of the process of reflection, the category of the “subjective” image (according to A.N. Leontiev). According to A.N. Leontiev, in cognition, reflection of reality, there is always an active ("biased") subject, modeling the object and the connections in which it is located. Based on the general psychological thesis of the conditionality of activity by motives, emotions, attitudes of the subject, A.N. Leontiev introduces the concept of "partiality" of reflection as its belonging to the subject of activity.

It is important to note that, approaching the concept of the subject from other - operational - positions, J. Piaget also considered activity as one of its leading characteristics. “He rightly emphasizes that just as the object is not “given” to the subject in a finished form, but is recreated by the latter in the structure of knowledge, as if “built” by him for himself, so the subject is “not given” to himself with all his internal structures; organizing an object for itself, the subject also constructs its own operations, i.e. makes itself a reality for itself."

According to J. Piaget, the subject is in constant interaction with the environment; he is innately inherent in the functional activity of the device, through which he structures the environment affecting him. Activity is revealed in actions, among which various transformations, object transformations (moving, combining, deleting, etc.) and creating structures are leading. J. Piaget emphasizes the idea, important for educational psychology, that between the object and the subject there is always an interaction that takes place in the context of the previous interaction, the previous reaction of the subject. Analyzing this position of J. Piaget and the entire Geneva school, L.F. Obukhova notes that the formula "stimulus - reaction", according to J. Piaget, should look like "stimulus - organizing activity of the subject - reaction". In other words, the subject of action, activity and, in a broader sense, interaction, correlated with the object, is an active, recreating and transforming principle. It is always active.

1.2 Subject and personality

The problem of subjectness in recent decades has been an object of special study in personality psychology (K.A. Abulkhanova, A.V. Brushlinsky, V.I. Slobodchikov, V.A. Petrovsky). The idea of human subjectness, meaning "... the property of self-determination of his being in the world" (V.A. Petrovsky), is considered as a reference for this area of psychology. “To be a person ... means to be a subject of activity, communication, self-consciousness,” notes V.A. Petrovsky, considering through this category the internal connection between the personal and the subjective. We present the arguments of V.A. Petrovsky:

"Firstly, to be a person means to be the subject of one's own life, to build one's vital (in the broadest sense) contacts with the world." This includes the physical, psychophysical, psychological, social and other aspects of a person's relationship with his natural and social environment.

“Secondly, to be a person means to be the subject of objective activity,” in which a person acts as an actor.

“Third, to be a person is to be a subject of communication”, where, according to V.A. Petrovsky, something in common is formed that ensures the mutual representation of the interacting parties. V.A. Petrovsky emphasizes the idea, important for understanding the connection between these categories, that "... it is impossible to be a person as a subject of communication without one or another degree of ideal representation (reflection) of a person in the lives of other people."

Fourth, according to V.A. Petrovsky, to be a person means to be a subject of self-consciousness, which includes self-esteem, the discovery of one's own "I" and other self-personal constituents. Considering subjectness as a constitutive characteristic of personality, V.A. Petrovsky introduces important concepts for pedagogical psychology: the concept of “virtual subjectness” as the moment of formation, transition to this state, which correlates with the emergence of the personal in a person; the concept of "reflected subjectivity" - "a true subject cannot but be a subject for himself and at the same time the subject of his being for another."

age learning intelligence

1.3 Age characteristics of subjects of educational activity

The student as a representative age period.

A person who acquires knowledge in any educational system is a learner. This concept emphasizes the fact that he learns himself with the help of others (teacher, fellow students), being an active subject of the educational process and at the same time being characterized by all the considered subjective qualities and features.

Each student has individual personal and activity characteristics, i.e. features of inclinations (individual-typological prerequisites), abilities, intellectual activity, cognitive style, level of claims, self-esteem, performance; features of the performance of activities (planning, organization, accuracy, etc.). Each student is characterized by his own style of activity, in particular educational, attitude towards it, learning ability.

At the same time, all students at a certain stage of the educational system are characterized by initial common and typical features and traits for them. This is explained by the fact that each educational level is correlated, as a rule, with a certain period in a person's life. Thus, all over the world, children no older than 10 years old study in primary school (although in extreme social situations, such as the eradication of illiteracy, adults are included in this stage of education). In addition, one should take into account the specifics (content, form) of the levels of education themselves, which are correlated not only with age characteristics, but also with the law of cumulativeness, building up, and increasing knowledge; structuring individual experience; building an individual thesaurus as an ordered structure of verbal intelligence. Because of this, the abstract-typical subjects "schoolchild", "student" are distinguished by public consciousness as certain generalizations based on these two (age and socio-cultural) grounds.

Age periodization as a basis for differentiation of subjects of educational activity.

Age periodization is one of the complex and controversial problems of psychology (A. Vallon, J. Piaget, V. Stern, P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky, etc.). Let us consider the main approaches to age periodization, which is the starting point for determining a typical subject of various levels of the educational and, above all, the school system.

L.S. Vygotsky identified three groups of approaches, or schemes for solving this problem. Within the framework of the first group, taking into account the biogenetic approach, the periodization of childhood is based on the stages of phylogenetic development. To this group L.S. Vygotsky also refers to periodization based on the stages of upbringing and education. Speaking about the fallacy of such a scheme, L.S. Vygotsky admits that "the division of childhood according to the pedagogical principle brings us extremely close to the true division of childhood into separate periods" as a result of the vast practical experience of education, correlating these stages with age-related changes. The second group of approaches (very numerous) takes as the basis for periodization a change in any one (often external) sign, for example, the appearance and change of teeth (dentition), sexual maturation, etc. The third group of approaches is aimed at identifying basal, significant in development, for example, changes internal pace and rhythm of development.

In line with the understanding of mental development by domestic psychology as an internally contradictory process associated with the emergence of mental and personal neoplasms, L.S. Vygotsky, following P.P. Blonsky, considers certain epochs, stages, phases in the general scheme of turning points, or developmental crises. At the same time, the criteria for their differentiation are, firstly, neoplasms that characterize the essence of each age. “Age-related neoplasms should be understood as that new type of personality structure and activity, those mental and social changes that first occur at a given age stage and which in the most important and fundamental way determine the child’s consciousness, his attitude to the environment, his inner and outer life, the whole course of its development in a given period. The second criterion L.S. Vygotsky considers the dynamics of the transition from one period to another, which can be sharp, critical and slow, gradual, lytic. Accordingly, L.S. Vygotsky identifies the following stable and critical periods age development: neonatal crisis, infancy (2 months - 1 year), crisis of 1 year, early childhood (1 year - 3 years), crisis of 3 years, preschool age (3 years - 7 years), crisis of 7 years, school age (8-12 years), crisis 13 years, puberty (14-18 years), crisis 17 years. In this scheme, attention is drawn to the different grounds for distinguishing the periods of preschool and school age (according to the pedagogical scheme) and puberty (according to the scheme of one sign). However, the very approach of combining the two criteria makes this periodization (as polysymptomatic, according to D.B. Elkonin) one of the most common and productive. So, D.B. Elkonin, accepting the scheme of L.S. Vygotsky for the initial one, defines the periods after the crisis of 7 years as follows: the crisis of 7 years, primary school age, the crisis of 11-12 years, adolescence (noting that the period of early adolescence also stands out). This scheme is built almost entirely on a pedagogical basis.

J. Piaget approached the definition of the typical features of a subject of different ages from the standpoint of the development of his intellect. He was based on the starting points of his theory: a) the principle of balance as a stable relationship of parts and the whole, to which intellectual development strives, provided by the relationship between functions (adaptation, assimilation, accommodation), and b) structurality, where the structure is "a mental system or integrity , the principles of activity of which are different from the principles of activity of the parts that make up this structure. J. Piaget identified four main periods in the development of intelligence following the formation of sensorimotor intelligence and the emergence of language, or the “symbolic function” that makes it possible to assimilate it, which, in his opinion, takes from 1.5 to 2 years. Respectively

From 1.5 to 2 years “begins a period that lasts up to 4 years and is characterized by the development of symbolic and pre-conceptual thinking;

In the period from 4 to 7-8 years, intuitive (visual) thinking is formed, based on the previous one, the progressive articulations of which lead close to operations;

From 7-8 to 11-12 years of age, concrete operations are formed, i.e., operational groupings of thinking related to objects that can be manipulated or grasped in intuition;

From 11-12 years old and throughout the entire youthful period, formal thinking is developed, the groupings of which characterize a mature reflective intellect.

If we compare those given for different reasons in the schemes of J. Piaget and L.S. Vygotsky age limits of periods, for example, preschool and primary school age, it is obvious that they generally coincide.

We see that these boundaries are determined primarily by the socio-cultural experience that has historically developed in the genetic memory of civilization, the experience of correlating the education of children and their internal psychological readiness to each of its levels. As rightly noted by L.S. Vygotsky, the pedagogical scheme, or, in other words, the socio-cultural and historical basis of the periodization of age development, remains one of the main ones, formally shared by almost all researchers, especially those who stand on the polysymptomatic basis of periodization.

The following periodization is generally accepted: pre-preschool (3-5 years), preschool (5-7 years), junior school (7-11 years), adolescence (middle school) age (11-15 years), early adolescence, or senior school age (15-18 years) and student age (late youth, early maturity) -17-18 years - 22-23 years (according to B.G. Ananiev).

Accordingly, the typical subjects of each of these educational periods are preschoolers, junior schoolchildren, teenagers, senior schoolchildren, and students. At the same time, it is noted that each age period in a person's life is determined by a combination of many factors that also act as its indicators.

D.B. Elkonin names three main indicators, factors that determine both the development itself and its periods. “A certain age in the life of a child, or the corresponding period of his development, is a relatively closed period, the significance of which is determined primarily by its place and functional significance on the general curve. child development. Each age, or period, is characterized by the following indicators:

1) a certain social situation of development or that specific form of relationship that the child enters into with adults in a given period;

2) the main or leading type of activity (there are several different types of activity that characterize certain periods of child development);

3) basic mental neoplasms (in each period they exist from individual mental processes to personality traits).

“Personal transitions to new stages of development under these conditions are not determined by those psychological patterns that would express the moments of self-movement of a developing personality,” emphasizes A.V. Petrovsky, on the contrary, they are determined from the outside by the inclusion of an individual in one or another institution of socialization, or they are due to objective changes within this institution, on which the personality turns out to be dependent in its formation. It is only because society creates schools that the school age arises as a stage in the development of the individual.

By the nature of the change in the leading types of the child's activity in different social situations of his development, i.e. on an activity basis, D.B. Elkonin also identified the age periods of mental development and six leading types (types) of activity: 1) direct emotional communication with adults, 2) subject-manipulative activity, 3) role-playing game, 4) educational activity, 5) intimate-personal communication and 6 ) educational and professional activities. At the same time, as D.I. Feldshtein rightly notes, according to D.B. Elkonin, intimate-personal communication, which is the leading activity of adolescence, should itself be included in a socially significant, socially approved, pro-social activity. It is she who should be regarded as truly leading at this age.

The listed types of activities are either included in the group of activities within which the assimilation of socially | developed methods of action takes place, i.e., activities in the system [of relations "the child is a social object", or in the group [of activities within which there is an intensive orientation in the basic sense human activity and the development of tasks, motives and norms of relations between people, i.e. activities in the system of relations "child - social adult". The first group "man - object" includes the second, fourth and sixth types of activity, the second group "man - man" - the first, third, fifth. A contradiction, a discrepancy between what is assimilated in different systems of relations, is called a crisis. This common law alternation of systems of relations and types of activities was named by D.B. Elkonin's law of periodicity.

The consideration of a schoolchild and a student as subjects of educational activity is based on the theses of D.B. Elkonin: the leading activity of the child (play, learning activities, personal communication, etc.) takes place in a certain social environment, developmental situations, which together form mental and personal neoplasms. It should also be taken into account that “in the process of historical development, the general social conditions in which the child develops change, the content and methods of teaching change, and all this cannot but affect the change in the age stages of development. Each age is a qualitatively special stage of mental development and is characterized by many changes that together make up the originality of the structure of the child's personality at a given stage of his development.

The significance of each age period is determined by its place in the overall cycle of the child's development. A.N. Leontiev, noting the specifics of intra- and inter-stage development, emphasizes that two leading directions are realized within the stage: from changing the circle life relationships to the development of actions, operations and vice versa - from the restructuring of these functions and operations to new activities. Between the stages there is an entry of objective activity into a new circle of social relations. This is the origin of the tendency of genetic consideration of each age as a stage in the integral development of the individual as a subject of knowledge, communication, and labor. However, according to research results psychological school B.G. Ananiev, the development itself has an involutionary-evolutionary character. As already noted, it is carried out along the main lines of the intellectual, personal and activity development of the child. These lines are inseparable from each other, which conditions and determines the development of a person as a whole as a person, as a subject of activity.

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The teacher is a student as a subject of educational activity. Modern student as a subject of the educational process. Student as a subject of educational activity

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