The system of connections between people. Basic research. Additional relationship features

Ecology of Consciousness: Psychology. Common mistakes in understanding people's motives cause most conflicts and emotional disorders.

Relationships are something to MAINTAIN

My title may seem like a gimmick. It is clear that no rules can fully define such a complex mechanism as human behavior. But despite this, most people tend to make the same mistakes. These errors are quite frequent and cause conflicts. Knowing these rules will help you avoid such mistakes.

People strive to be nice, friendly, interesting, etc.

In books about human relationships, you can find two statements that are quite distant from each other:

• It is clear that people generally understand the forces that drive them, but do not always manage them well. They want to be nice, considerate, etc.
• Quite complex theories can explain human behavior, but they are difficult to formalize.

Between these two points, there seems to be useful information that can be applied in practice, although this is not always obvious. Frequent mistakes in understanding people's motives cause most conflicts and emotional disorders.

seven rules

Here are the seven rules I'm talking about. Of course, this is not an exhaustive list, or vice versa, these seven rules can be somehow reduced to three, more significant ones. However, seven is a good number.

Rule 1: Do not look for malice in what can be easily explained by vanity

People don't worry or think about you. This is not because they are low or harmful, but simply becausethey are mostly self-centered.

Most of the thoughts and aspirations of a person are directed at himself. His goals. His problems. His feelings. Much less of his focus is on relationships and how they affect him. What does a friend think of me? How did my boss rate my work?

And a person pays very little attention to sympathy. Sympathy - rare case when one person experiences the emotions and problems of another person. Instead of asking myself what a friend thinks of me, I ask myself what a friend thinks.

This small percentage of attention is shared among the many people they know. As a result, each of us occupies a value close to zero in the minds of other people. Even if you are in the thoughts of another person, then this is more likely to apply to your relationship, but not to you personally.

What does this mean?

• All kinds of embarrassment and embarrassment do not make sense. Since others focus a very small part of their thoughts on you,your self-esteem is much more important.
• People who appear low or mean usually don't do it on purpose. Of course, there are exceptions, but more often than not, the resentment you get from them is a side effect, but was not the main reason for their actions.
• Relationships are something to be maintained. Don't expect them to fold by themselves.

Rule 2: Social behavior is rarely obvious

Basically this rule means that most of the intentions behind our actions are hidden. If a person feels depressed or angry, the resulting behavior usually distorts their true feelings. If I feel that you are treating me with disdain, I can restrain myself now, but ignore you later.

A person can say “fine” while experiencing the opposite feeling.

Hence, in order to be effective, you need to not only hear the person, but also focus on how they feel. Demonstrate trust, build rapport, try to learn it little by little. By focusing on empathy, you are more likely to be able to understand the other person and solve a possible problem.

Another application of this rule ismost of the time no one knows how you feel. So don't get angry when people don't understand you.

Rule 3: Behavior is largely dictated by selfish altruism

To say that everyone is completely selfish would be an overstatement. Of course, there are acts of kindness, sacrifice and love. But most (not all, but most) actions proceed from the principles of selfish altruism.

Selfish altruism is when helping you directly or indirectly benefits me. Here are a few examples of how this applies:

1. Deals- If I buy a car, both I and the dealer get some benefit. I get the car I want. The dealer makes money to improve his life. This is the predominant form of selfish altruism that has no emotional ties.

2. Family- We are arranged so that we are inclined to protect people connected with us by ties of kinship. Sometimes this rule can be transferred to close friends and loved ones.

3. Status Helping someone is a sign of strength. People can offer their help to increase self-esteem and reputation.

4. Assumed reciprocity- Such a relationship can be based on the idea that if I help you one day, someday you will help me.

Sometimes behavior falls outside of these categories. Actions can be completely disinterested. But they are a minority, while most actions can be explained by some form of selfish altruism.

How can this rule be applied? You can understand people's motives and treat them like selfish creatures.Find ways to help people. Don't expect them to offer you help beyond selfish altruism. This is certainly possible, but unlikely.

Rule 4: People don't have very good memories.

A person will almost certainly forget the name of another person who introduces himself very quickly. People rarely remember the details of events after a few days. People tend to remember similarities rather than differences.

Humans are naturally forgetful, so don't take it as intent or disinterest if someone has forgotten about you. The other side of this rule is that you can demonstrate the reliability of your memory either by developing it or by using some technical memory systems.

Rule 5: Everyone is emotional

Perhaps this is an exaggeration. But in general, people tend to experience more strong feelings what they show outwardly. People who regularly exhibit outbursts of anger, depression, or enthusiasm are frowned upon by much of society. This is especially true for men.

As a consequence, one should not think that everything is fine just because no one has a nervous breakdown. To be effective and anticipate a problem situation in time, one must be sensitive to the undercurrents of the human condition.

Additionally, you can say that people will assume that everything is fine with you, unless you explicitly demonstrate the opposite.

Rule 6: People are lonely

This seems like a broad generalization. But it's amazing how many people who seem to have a lot suffer from loneliness. As social beings, humans are particularly sensitive to any threat of being taken out of society. Lonely can be even surrounded by many people.

Since loneliness is quite common, in this sense (of loneliness), you will never be alone. Seriously, pay attention to the interests of other people, maybe you will find common ground with your interests. On the other hand, others people are unlikely to find out your interests on their own if you do not tell them about it.

Rule 7: People are self-absorbed

It's kind of like repeating rule number one. The facts that people tend to be extremely interested only in themselves, that they are often lonely, that they are more emotional and sensitive than they let on, give us food for thought and increase our effectiveness.

I love optimistic, but at the same time realistic ideas about people. People in general try their best, but make mistakes and suffer from unintentional egocentrism. In other words, they basically look like you.published

A person from the very moment of his birth is an integral part of interconnected and interacting social relations. He is drawn into chains and series of interactions. The problem of his experience is no longer the fixation of individual interactions, but contact with interaction systems.

Even more complex interactions characterize the life of society, because society is a process and a product of the interaction of people both with nature and with each other. The spiritual world of people is organized through semantic (psychological, logical, moral, aesthetic and other) interactions.

Similarly, any society interacts with each other through the use of interaction, without which there would be nothing, while allowing the development of characteristics of the forms of human event, human activity and cognition. It is the complex forms of interaction that characterize the life of society. According to the definition of K. Marx, society is a "product of the interaction of people"

Interaction also contains a cognitive paradox. On the one hand, it manifests itself due to the “inscription” of the cognizing person in the situation, on the other hand, it points to factors, forces and causes that go beyond the framework of the cognitive situation, do not depend on the subject, causing a discrepancy between interactions and its detection by a person.

The givenness of interaction puts a person before the need to reckon with their objective properties, which do not depend on his cognitive attitude and his impact on the logic of things. This paradox of interaction is due to the fact that a person exists not in separate acts of an event with people and things, but in sequences, rows, interlacings of such acts.

For homo sapiens, which arose historically, his consciousness, the world already represented the interaction of the fundamental principles - material and spiritual - as realities that exist outside and independently of the consciousness that perceives them and appeared for it at the same time. Such a view can evolve historically, but in principle it retains its internal stability and all-encompassing nature, a tendency to endless refinement, development and improvement, approaching the most correct understanding of the world and man himself, from the point of view of the “philosophy of interaction”, but never exhausting it. .

The desire to see and find interaction everywhere and everywhere, always and in everything corresponds to the objective nature of objects, things and phenomena - material and spiritual - and at the same time gives a person the most universal and correct orientation for comprehending the surrounding reality and himself, as well as for his behavior in society and interacting with other people.

The desire for interaction awakens, stimulates, develops and consolidates the best, generally useful, enduring in their meaning. human qualities, such as insight, tolerance, endurance, sympathy, self-control, trust, compliance, mercy, kindness, etc.

In the socio-political sphere, the focus on interaction presupposes an understanding of the opposite position, other interests and needs, the known rightness of the other side, the ability to come to broader and more complex views, to the realization of the priority of deeper, common interests that bring together and unite various positions.

As a result of interaction, the true victory is the victory of each of the parties over itself, its own limitations, narrowness and selfishness. Victory then becomes a mutual victory, and therefore internally strong and beneficial for both sides and, more broadly, for everyone who is somehow connected with the process of interaction of the sides or forces opposing each other in this case.

During the interaction, the fundamental independence and certainty of each of the interacting parties is preserved. At the same time, each of them makes some concessions that are ultimately mutually acceptable and mutually beneficial. However, true interaction is impossible with complete capitulation or complete intransigence of one of the parties. This applies to the material and spiritual spheres of life, and to politics and culture.

Sight, hearing, touch, smell are the interaction between the objects of perception and certain sense organs. Any movement in space is also the interaction of various physical bodies and a person with earth, water, etc. Being in any environment, physical bodies and a person interacts with it and with each other, even being at rest. Any relationship of a person to any object and actions with it represent an interaction with this object. Any human activity (material and spiritual) is an interaction between the artist's idea and its real implementation, during which their mutual coordination takes place. Interaction occurs in objects of animate and inanimate nature at different levels of their structure and various processes occurring in them. In a word, the phenomenon of interaction embraces the whole world surrounding a person (material and spiritual) and the person himself.

Interaction as a real phenomenon and as a representation has actually always existed, if we take the emergence of Homo sapiens as a starting point, but only in modern conditions are there the greatest historical and logical grounds for making interaction truly the leading and defining postulate of a special “philosophy of interaction”, truly comprehensive and fundamentally new, in comparison with all previous philosophical directions and concepts.

The true good and happiness of a person consists in his interaction, as complete, organic and fruitful as possible, with the surrounding world, material and spiritual, and with other people, and interaction with everything “unlike” and similar to himself, allowing a person to show his own abilities and learn everything necessary and what is useful to him, received from outside, is the purpose and meaning of human life.

Each interaction implies the desire of the individual to achieve specific goals. The goals of the philosophy of interaction are understood as a state or result that is currently not yet available, but which is planned to be achieved in the process of interaction with other objects.

The degree of achievement of the set goals in the implementation of the interaction is called its effectiveness. The greater the degree of goals achieved, the greater the efficiency. However, the goals may not be the same and unequal. In the legal literature, they are divided according to their degree of importance into high-level and lower-level goals.

The characterization of interaction as a mutual change in the sides of the system, in which the movement acquires a "circular" character, also applies to any specific system of interacting phenomena. Such a particular system also acts as a "cause of itself", i.e. contains within itself the source of its own movement. Understood in this way, the cause coincides with the internal contradiction of this particular system.

Interaction is always concrete in the sense that it is always a relation of the parties. The whole system is defined, for example solar system, plant, animal kingdoms, human society, certain socio-economic formations. The content of the interaction is determined by the nature of its constituent moments, the mutual change of which acts as a specific movement of the given system. Any specific system, such as living organisms, can serve as examples of such a dialectical interaction. Living organisms refract the influence of the external environment through the specific organization of their body and the relationship of individuals of a given species. A striking example of a self-preserving, self-reproducing and self-moving system of interacting phenomena can be precisely human society in its development based on specific social patterns.

Separately, I would like to dwell on the current that appeared in the middle of the 20th century - namely, the “Philosophy of Interaction” (“Bialism”). "Philosophy of interaction" proceeds from the fact that all real phenomena in the world, that is, existing outside and independently of their perception, at all levels and in any expression, represent the interaction of their inherent material and spiritual principles. The world is "binary", not "monistic". Both principles are primordial and sovereign. There is not and cannot be any "primary", ontologically-genetic and structural-functional one of them. One principle does not exist outside and without the other. It can dominate the phenomenon. Both beginnings constantly and inexhaustibly diverse complement and mutually enrich each other. At the same time, they are able to partially pass into each other, strengthening one of the principles. At the same time, never and nowhere, in nothing and at no level, one of the beginnings will completely pass into another.

Interaction is a process, the internal unity of which is realized in the continuous change of its elements, sides. The reproduction of a phenomenon based on the interaction of its own elements acts as its development (self-development). In a self-developing system, the cause of its existence ultimately turns out to be its own consequence. The chain of causes and actions closes here not only into a “ring”, but also into a “spiral”. An example of this form of interaction is the interaction system economic phenomena, scientifically reproduced in Marx's Capital.

In a similar relationship of interaction are between the theory and practice of man. Theory is not only a consequence of practice. Arising on the basis of practice and receiving an active stimulus for its development in it, theory has a reverse effect on practice.

However, a more careful analysis reveals that the "pure" interaction of the two is an idealization that leaves behind the "hidden" mediators: norms, stereotypes, orientations that go "beyond the boundaries" of direct contact. In the field of analysis natural objects and systems, it is also necessary, when characterizing the interaction, to take into account various kinds of temporal, ensemble, population dependencies that are not fixed within the framework of direct interactions. A person, thus, is drawn into chains and series of interactions. The problem of his experience is no longer the fixation of individual interactions, but contact with interaction systems.

Actually, this is what distinguishes the modern "non-classical" situation of cognition from the classical one, formed "around" a separate interaction of things, assuming a separate subject with a separate act of fixing the interaction. But the more noticeable this difference, the clearer that the definition of a cognitive situation by a scheme of a separate interaction was a kind of idealization, accentuated by habitual and stable forms of human experience. The simplicity of the experience of human interactions turned out to be predetermined, conditional, requiring explanations that complement ordinary experience.

Interaction contains a cognitive paradox. On the one hand, it manifests itself due to the "inscription" of the cognizing person in the situation, on the other hand, it indicates factors, forces and causes that go beyond the cognitive situation, do not depend on the subject, causing a discrepancy between the interaction and its detection by a person.

It can be noted that such a paradox of interaction is due to the fact that a person exists not in separate acts of an event with people and things, but in sequences, rows, interlacings of such acts. He constantly has to move from individual interactions to their linkages and chains, and, consequently, to change his cognitive positions, means and tools. In fact, he needs to do this in order to see indirect interactions behind direct interactions, in order to master or create means that include him in systems of interconnections wider than those that are directly given to him.

In the social realm, an example of interaction would be direct communication between human individuals. Interaction is often identified with direct interaction.

Direct interactions reveal individual properties of objects, but by no means always can characterize their features, the certainty of their inherent forms of motion. Concretization of ideas about the types of movement, about special sets of interrelated objects, about their qualities is achieved by a person through the creation of measuring instruments, concepts of measures, knowledge of the categories of phenomena and methods of their comparison. This experience is fixed in knowledge, which is usually called scientific.

The key question is the relationship between the situation of being given to a person and the need for a person to go beyond this given, to take into account this need in the characteristics of his being. Interaction is the starting point of various kinds of cognitive situations insofar as they reveal shifts and changes in the states and movements of objects, in positions, actions and perceptions of a person. Interaction, "discovering" the properties of the objects included in it, at the same time indirectly determines the situation of cognition, fixes the cognitive abilities of the subject, his "placement" in the situation, his involvement in the interaction, and therefore his own properties.

interaction society human philosophy

Communicating with other people is one of the important skills that we face every day. Communication skill is acquired and formed in childhood, and then - depending on personal experience and surrounding people - is transformed, improved or degraded. Not every modern person knows how to build relationships with people not only successfully, but also on a mutually beneficial basis. Here it is important to have not only analytical skills, but also to know what the rules and secrets of this process are.

But all this primarily depends on the person himself. For some it's easier, for some it's harder. The problem of relationships with people will always be acute in modern society, and this topic will never stop being studied by all kinds of psychologists and sociologists - and all because it is a real storehouse of new ideas and theories that allow you to learn more about society as a whole, and about each person specifically.

Let's look at the rules and secrets of successfully building relationships with other people based on the recommendations of practicing psychologists.

Three main secrets of communication success

As psychologists say, there are three main secrets of communication interpersonal success. They include aspects such as:

• the ability to listen and hear your interlocutor;
• the ability to adequately assess one's own abilities and role in the contactee's life;
• the adequacy of psychological reactions in response to the information received.

If you experience problems in contact with other people, then first of all you should pay attention to childhood. Sometimes even the smallest and seemingly imperceptible events cause serious problems. It is very important from early childhood to learn to find with others mutual language which is not always easy. But it is because of this that we learn to be adults and learn to build relationships with other people. It is impossible to live in the modern world without such a skill: like it or not, and every day you communicate with sellers, neighbors, parents and colleagues.

The ability to listen and adequately evaluate the information received is the most important communication skill. It is impossible to build successful relationships with people around you if you do not give exactly the reaction that the interlocutor expects to see. For example, a friend, talking about her problems in relationships with men, does not always want to hear regret and pity. Most often, such a person is looking for moral support and information that will raise self-esteem.

You must always remain true to yourself, no matter who fate brought you to in life and at work. Don't try to impress a person by pretending to be someone you're not - even the smallest lies in such things will be revealed sooner or later. Don't try to be anything other than yourself - that's the best way to build relationships with other people. We always feel when a person is sincere, and when he is throwing dust in his eyes. And your actions should also show you as an individual, not a beautiful copy of someone else's image. Do and act as you see fit. When discussing a particular issue, you should be sure of the things you are talking about.

It's also worth being genuinely interested in what you're talking about with the other person. This is the best way to meet and make friends with large quantity of people. Another important condition This is respect both for yourself and for the interlocutor. And do not skimp on compliments and praise - people really like it when their merits are appreciated and their actions are noted. This is not only a way to show your upbringing, but also an opportunity to raise the self-esteem of another person, give him confidence or add enthusiasm in any endeavor.

The basis of relationships between people is trust and sincerity!

The foundation and basis of any relationship is trust, without it you will not go far in the modern world. Trust arises only if the person is sure of who you are. Don't put up walls in your relationships with people because of past bad experiences - it's certainly very, very difficult to do so. But this useful skill will only add to your pluses as a person, a very strong person.

Trust and sincerity of your intentions are a solid foundation for strong and lasting relationships between people, regardless of social and gender differences!

The next principle is: “Say what you are going to do. And do it." Don't make promises that you can't keep. You should not promise a person mountains of gold if you are not even confident in your abilities or have no idea how you will do it. Be a man of your word, and then those around you will undoubtedly be drawn to you. People will know that you can be trusted, that you are a holistic person who knows his abilities perfectly and skillfully accepts them, and does not pay attention to the envy and stupidity of others, he does not try to seem like someone else.

Smile as often as possible and under any circumstances. Just look at those around you. And what do you see there? Tired, irritated and impatient faces of people who are always in a hurry somewhere or arguing with someone. I don't even want to approach them, let alone talk. A smiling person immediately attracts the attention of others and instinctively evokes a sense of trust. A smile is the best accessory for a girl, which designers have been telling us about almost since the very beginning of fashion. She seems to be saying, “I like you. You make me happy. I'm glad to see you". Just try it and you will see - people, for the most part, answer us the same.

Successful people generally know how to build relationships between people at various social levels. This allows them to motivate others for successful activities, support in difficult times and influence the behavior of employees. It is worth using these rules and secrets to successfully build interpersonal communications.

When talking, you should avoid criticism, condemnation or pity, which often do not solve the problem at all, and sometimes even exacerbate the problem. Without noticing it, you can offend a person or completely ruin a relationship. You should carefully monitor your speech and try to understand the person, and not condemn, not knowing and not understanding the situation. Put yourself in their place: what would you do in a similar situation, what would you be like and what would you do? And then, together with the interlocutor, try to find a way, or at least develop several possible options for getting out of this or that situation.

And the last, most important rule is the ability to remain silent at the right time. It is this quality that we value so much in others, and we want to be noticed and appreciated in us. The ability to remain silent at the right moment and listen without interrupting the interlocutor disposes people to a more frank dialogue, or just a conversation in a kind and calm atmosphere.

Interpersonal relationships

Interpersonal communication as an interaction between people, a condition for their mutual understanding and relationships between them is a process that can be considered as a “man-man” system in all the multifaceted dynamics of its functioning.

Interpersonal interaction represents a really functioning connection of subjects endowed with consciousness and purposeful interdependent activity. The concept of "interpersonal interaction" combines not only private concepts, such as "mutual understanding", "mutual assistance" ("mutual assistance"), "empathy", "mutual influence". It also includes opposite categories - "mutual misunderstanding", "opposition" or "lack of action", "lack of empathy, sympathy, mutual influence".

Interpersonal relationships can be viewed from different angles. On the one hand, interpersonal relationships include subjectively experienced relationships between people, which are objectively found in the nature and methods of interdependent influences manifested by people in the course of joint activities and communication. On the other hand, interpersonal relationships can be described as a system of attitudes, orientations, stereotypes, etc., thanks to which people are able to perceive and evaluate each other. These elements interpersonal relationships form the basis of the socio-psychological climate in the team, since they are mediated not only by the content and goals of joint activities, but also by its values ​​and organization.

Each person, individual, during his life has to perform various social roles that indicate his place in the system of social relations, the standard pattern of behavior expected from the person in this position. If the performers of social roles, entering into relationships, do not take into account the peculiarities of their performance, then social relations become impersonal. If in the style of performance social role personality traits appear that cause responses in other members of the team, we are talking about the formation of a system of interpersonal relations.

It is known that an individual becomes a person only under the conditions of his formation in a group, as a result of which the person acts as a direct and indirect spokesman for intra-group relations. The group is endowed with a high degree of significance for the individual, since it characterizes certain system activity, given its place in the system of social division of labor. At the same time, the group itself appears as a subject of a separate type of activity, on the basis of which it is included in the system of social relations. Thus, only a group can fully reflect the fundamental features of the social system in which it arose and carries out its activities.

Interpersonal relationships can be built on a rational or emotional basis. Rational interpersonal relationships are built on the basis of people's knowledge of each other and, accordingly, the objective assessments that they receive from others. Interpersonal relationships are not possible without an emotional basis, that is, certain feelings that arise between people. emotional relationship, being the complete opposite of rational, are based on subjective assessments based on individual perception man man. Such relationships are characterized by positive or negative emotions and are not always based on objective information about a person that corresponds to reality. Feelings underlying emotional relationships can unite (conjunctive) and separate (disjunctive), but always contribute to the development of interpersonal relations in a group and the distribution of social roles in it.

social role(aspect or part of the activity of the personality), which the individual chooses and plays in the course of his life, should be understood as an impersonal norm that is not related to the personal properties of the individuals who fulfill it. However, the requirements that this role imposes on a person are not always unambiguously formulated. At the same time, a certain amount of objectivity is inherent in these requirements.

Naturally, the performance of the role is accompanied by a prerequisite - its internalization, that is, the assimilation by the personality. First of all, it is important how a person perceives, realizes and evaluates his role, what place he assigns to it in his image of the Self, and, finally, what personal meaning he invests in it. We see that the concept of "social role" acts as a link between the activities of the individual, his self-awareness and the functioning of the social system. Without attributing oneself to any social role, a person cannot define himself. For a person seeking to define his Self, social roles serve as a starting point.

Interpersonal interaction is characterized by compatibility and "workability" of partners, which determines the nature and duration of interpersonal relationships. The presence of real interpersonal contact is diagnosed by the success of the implementation joint tasks satisfaction of partners with each other. Interaction has an intermediate form, with the help of which it develops into communication or remains undeveloped. Such a transitional form is called "contact" (from Latin contactus, con-tingo - to touch, touch, grab, get, reach, have a relationship with someone). In psychology, contact is understood as "the convergence of subjects in time and space, as well as a certain measure of closeness in relationships." This approach to the definition of "contact" allows us to consider it as necessary condition correct interaction - either as a close, direct or, conversely, unstable, mediated contact. Without contact, it is difficult to count on effective interaction. In the process of interaction, the influence of people and their interaction include imitation, suggestion, conformity. In conditions when the activity of one person is inseparable from joint activity, the maximum level of influence of communication on the mental manifestations of individuals is manifested.

In the total number of approaches to describing the internal mechanisms of interpersonal interaction ( R. Bales), the exchange theory, the psychoanalytic approach, the theory of impression management, the concept of symbolic interactionism stand out.

In accordance with exchange theory (J. Homans), people interact with each other based on their own experience, which implies possible rewards and costs. J. Homans believes that each person is trying to find a balance between rewards and costs, which should allow him to make the interaction sustainable. The repeatability of behaviors depends on the number of rewards (the more frequent the rewards, the more repetition), while the dependence of rewards on any conditions leads to the fact that a person seeks to recreate them. In addition, the amount of remuneration determines the effort expended on obtaining it (the prospect of receiving a greater reward, is willing to spend more effort). If a person is close to saturation in his needs, then he does not expect to make efforts to satisfy these needs. The exchange theory allows describing such complex types interactions, such as power relations, negotiation, leadership, etc. Interpersonal interaction cannot be considered as a simple exchange of rewards, since a person's reaction to a reward is not always described linear dependence stimulus-response. The history of mankind knows many examples when high rewards led to a decrease in the activity of people, etc.

Today it is very popular psychoanalytic approach, developed by Z. Freud, according to which interpersonal interaction is based on ideas learned in early childhood and conflicts experienced during this period of life (“we all come from childhood”). Based on this theory, people in the process of interaction replicate and reproduce children's experience. According to Freud's theory, the attractiveness of groups for a person and obedience to the leaders of these groups is explained by their identification with powerful personalities, which our parents personified in childhood, and not by the personal qualities of leaders. We seem to be returning to earlier stages of our development, and the absence of any expectations helps to strengthen the power of group leaders.

Author impression management theories, or theory of social dramaturgy, is E. Hoffman. From his point of view, situations of social interaction are similar to dramatic performances, and people tend to produce and maintain flattering impressions of themselves (“the whole world is a theater, and the people in it are actors”). In order to make a good impression on others, a person himself prepares appropriate situations. Thus, social situations are seen as dramatic performances in miniature: “Despite the specific goal that the individual mentally sets for himself, despite the motive that determines this goal, he is interested in regulating the behavior of others, especially their response. This regulation is carried out mainly by his influence on the understanding of the situation by others; he acts in such a way as to produce the impression he needs on people, under the influence of which others will independently do what corresponds to his own plans ”(E. Hoffmann).

Symbolic interactionism(concept proposed J. Mead and G. Bloomer) is a specific interpretation of the interactive side of interaction, which determines the behavior of people and the relationship to each other by the level of importance attached to them. According to J. Mead, human actions as social behavior are based on the exchange of information. Thus, in the interaction, J. Mead identified two types of actions - insignificant gesture(automatic reflex, such as blinking) and meaningful gesture(defined by understanding the actions and intentions of another person). To make a meaningful gesture, a person must put himself in the place of another or accept his role. Our ability to carry out gestures is due to the fact that a person from childhood is accustomed to attach importance to certain objects, actions and events, turning them into symbols. Interaction between people, in accordance with this theory, is a continuous dialogue, in which people observe each other, realize the intentions of others and react to them. According to the theory of symbolic interactionism, a personality is formed in the process of interaction with other personalities due to the establishment of control over the actions of the personality and ideas about it that are formed by others.

To communicate with other people, a person must adhere to the accepted rules of relationships, to distinguish between right and wrong behavior. Social norms developed in society are adopted on the basis of general ideas and are used to regulate human behavior. group(or social) norm is a standard of behavior in society, which is the regulator of relations. The sphere of social norms is very diverse - it includes patterns of behavior that meet the requirements of behavior in an educational team or organization, military duty, courtesy rules, etc.

The effectiveness of interaction is determined by the content of the norms. The norms adopted in the group are assimilated by all its members and regulate their behavior, allowing them to evaluate certain possibilities and methods of action of individual participants and the group as a whole. Thus, the norm is a holistic system possible ways behaviors that are more or less strictly observed by the members of a group or society. The existence of a norm is not limited, but a change in people's living conditions can lead to their change (when a certain standard turned out to be useless or turned into a hindrance).

Depending on the views of a particular group, norms can be evaluated positively or negatively. The first assessment is given to the norms that contribute to the development of the group, supporting its goals and objectives. Accordingly, the norms that impede the achievement of the group's goals are negatively evaluated.

Levels of manifestations of the norm vary from generally accepted to group. Any norm has prerequisites, and it arises under certain conditions. As a rule, norms are manifested in actions and situations that are significant for others. Norms are written and unwritten, common to all (regardless of personality) and special (referring only to a limited circle of people). In addition, the norms differ in the degree and breadth of deviations allowed and penalties expected for their violation.

Consequently, the norms of behavior include customs, moral norms and laws that allow regulating the relationship between people. Peoples developed certain customs in the process of development, which allowed them to better adapt to the environment. Each new generation is passed on social norms in finished form. Some of the most important customs for the life of society acquire the character of moral norms.

This text is an introductory piece. From the book Psychological Security: tutorial author Solomin Valery Pavlovich

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS IN GROUPS AND COLLECTIVES

author Ilyin Evgeny Pavlovich

SECTION II Interpersonal Relationships and Mutual Understanding

From the book Psychology of Communication and Interpersonal Relations author Ilyin Evgeny Pavlovich

11.1. Interpersonal relationships and their classification Interpersonal relationships are relationships that develop between individuals. They are often accompanied by emotional experiences, express inner world person. Interpersonal relationships are divided into the following

From the book Psychology of Communication and Interpersonal Relations author Ilyin Evgeny Pavlovich

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Interpersonal Relations Interpersonal interaction unites not only private concepts, such as mutual understanding, mutual assistance (mutual assistance), empathy, mutual influence. It also includes opposite categories - mutual misunderstanding,

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author Volkov Pavel Valerievich

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Chapter 6

2. Psychology of human interaction. Interpersonal relationships

As a cell of the analysis of social psychology, they consider the situation of interaction between two or more people.

Interaction are the actions of individuals directed towards each other. Such an action can be considered as a set of methods used by a person to achieve certain goals - solving practical problems or realizing values.

P. Sorokin warns that “if someone undertook an analysis of the mutual behavior of members of some social group, completely ignoring the mental processes that occur in the psyche of each member during this or that act and describing only the external forms of acts of behavior, then the whole social life would have slipped entirely out of analysis.

Thus, the analysis of social relationships has two aspects: psychological and logical-semantic. Since any social interaction can be considered from these two points of view, it is advisable to start with an analysis of the most general and fundamental forms of social interaction, moving on to more specific - economic, political and other forms of social interaction.

There are two main levels of social interaction research: the micro level and the macro level. The interaction of people with each other, in pairs, in small groups or interpersonal interaction is studied at the micro level. The macro level of social interactions includes large social structures, the main institutions of society: religion, family, economy.

Social life arises and develops due to the presence of dependencies between people, which creates the prerequisites for the interaction of people with each other. People interact because they depend on each other. social connection- this is the dependence of people, realized through social action, carried out with a focus on other people, with the expectation of an appropriate response from the partner. In social communication, we can distinguish:

• subjects of communication(two people or thousands of people);
• subject of connection(about what the connection is being made);
• relationship management mechanism.

Termination of communication may occur when the subject of communication is changed or lost, or when the participants in communication do not agree with the principles of its regulation. Social communication can act in the form of social contact (the connection between people is superficial, fleeting, the contact partner can be easily replaced by another person) and in the form of interaction (systematic, regular actions of partners directed at each other, with the goal of causing a very definite response from side of the partner, and the response generates a new reaction of the influencer). social relations is a stable system of interaction between partners, which has a self-renewable character.

P. Sorokin emphasized that “mental and social interaction (exchange of ideas, feelings, desires, experiences) is possible:

• in the presence of the psyche, sensory organs (in order to find out the experiences and thoughts of another person, we must see the expression of his face, eyes, hear his voice, laughter, words);
• if interacting people express the same mental experiences in the same way, they equally understand the symbols themselves, which objectify mental states.

The situation of contact between two or more people can take various forms: 1) simple co-presence; 2) exchange of information; 3) joint activities; 4) equal mutual or asymmetric activity, and the activity can be of different types: social influence, cooperation, rivalry, manipulation, conflict and others

2.1 Interpersonal relationships and interactions

The lifelong dependence of people on each other places the problem of human relationships at the very core of human existence. People have a strong need for connection: to enter into long-term close relationships with other people that guarantee positive experiences and results.

This need, being due to biological and social reasons, contributes to human survival: in our ancestors they were bound by mutual responsibility, which ensured group survival (both in hunting and in the construction of dwellings, ten hands are better than one);

• the social connectedness of children and adults raising them mutually increases their viability;
• having found a soul mate - a person who supports us and whom we can trust, we feel happy, protected, resilient;
• Having lost a soul mate, adults feel jealousy, loneliness, despair, pain, anger, self-isolation, deprivation.

Man is indeed a social, social being, living in conditions of interaction and communication with people.

The unit of interaction is called transaction. Berne wrote: “People, being together in the same group, will inevitably talk to each other or show their awareness of the presence of each other. The person to whom the transactional stimulus is addressed will say or do something in response. We call this response the transactional response. A transaction is considered additional if the stimulus leads to the expected response.

In the structure of human interaction, E. Bern identifies the positions "Parent", "Adult", "Child", on the basis of which the real process of interaction is built. Interaction from the position of the Parent implies a tendency to dominate, to compete, to manifest power and a sense of high self-worth, to teach others, to critically condemn other people, governments, etc. Interaction from the position of an Adult implies a tendency to equal cooperation, to recognition for oneself and others equal rights and responsibility for the outcome of interaction. Interaction from the position of the Child implies a tendency to submit, to seek support and protection ("obedient child"), or to emotional impulsive protest, rebellion, unpredictable whims ("rebellious child").

Various forms of interpersonal interaction can be distinguished: attachment, friendship, love, competition, care, pastime, operation, game, social influence, submission, conflicts, ritual interaction, etc.

Different forms of human interaction are characterized by specific positions.

ritual interaction- one of the most common forms of interaction, which is built according to certain rules, symbolically expressing real social relations and the statue of a man in a group and society. The ritual acts as a special form of interaction invented by people to satisfy the need for recognition. Ritual interaction comes from the position of Parent-Parent. The ritual reveals the values ​​of the group, people express by ritual what touches them the most, what constitutes their social value orientations.

The English scholar Victor Turner, considering rituals and ceremonies, understands them as prescribed formal behavior, as "a system of beliefs and actions performed by a special cult association." Ritual actions are important for the implementation of continuity between different generations in an organization, for maintaining traditions and transferring accumulated experience through symbols. Ritual interaction is both a kind of holiday that has a deep emotional impact on people, and a powerful means of maintaining stability, strength, continuity of social ties, a mechanism for uniting people and increasing their solidarity. Rituals, rituals, customs are able to be imprinted on the subconscious level of people, providing deep penetration of certain values ​​into the group and individual Consciousness, into the tribal and personal memory.

Mankind has developed a huge variety of rituals throughout its history: religious rites, palace ceremonies, diplomatic receptions, military rituals, secular rites, including holidays and funerals. Rituals include numerous norms of behavior: receiving guests, greeting acquaintances, addressing strangers, etc. Ritual is a rigidly fixed sequence of transactions, and transactions are made from the Parental position and addressed to the Parental position, allowing people to feel recognized. If a person's need for recognition is not realized, then aggressive behavior begins to develop. The ritual is just designed to remove this aggression, to satisfy the need for recognition at least at a minimal level.

AT following form interactions - operations- the transaction is carried out from the position of "Adult-Adult". We encounter operations every day: first of all, interactions at work, study, as well as cooking, repairing an apartment, etc. Having successfully completed an operation, a person confirms his competence and receives confirmation from others.

Labor interaction, distribution and performance of professional, family functions, skillful and efficient implementation of these duties - these are the operations that fill people's lives.

Competition- a form of social interaction in which there is a clearly defined goal that must be achieved, all actions various people are related to each other with regard to this purpose in such a way that they do not conflict; at the same time, the person himself does not come into conflict with himself, adhering to the installation of another team player, but nevertheless, the desire to achieve better results than other team members is inherent in a person. Since a person accepts the attitudes of other people and allows this attitude of others to determine what he will do in the next moment, taking into account some common goal, he becomes an organic member of his group, society, accepting the morality of this society and becoming its significant member.

In some cases, a person, being with other people in the same room and performing seemingly joint activities, mentally stays in a completely different place, mentally talks with imaginary interlocutors, dreams about his own - such a specific interaction is called leaving. Care is quite ordinary and natural form interaction, but still more often resorted to by people with problems in the field of interpersonal needs. If a person does not have other forms of interaction, except for care, then this is already a pathology - psychosis.

The next type of approved fixed interactions is pastime, providing at least a minimum of pleasant sensations, signs of attention, “stroking” between interacting people. Pastime is a fixed form of transactions designed to satisfy people's need for recognition. The most common pastime from the position of Parent-Parent: everything that deviates from the norm is discussed and condemned: children, women, men, power, television, etc., or pastime on the topic “Things” (comparison of cars, televisions, etc. in possession), "Who won yesterday" (football and other sports scores) is a male pastime; "Kitchen", "Shop", "Dress", "Children", "How much does it cost?", "Do you know what she is..." - a predominantly female pastime. During such pastimes, partners and the prospects for developing relations with them are evaluated.

Sustainable interaction of people can be due to the appearance of mutual sympathy - attraction. Close relationships that provide friendly support and feeling (that is, we feel loved, approved, and encouraged by friends and loved ones) are associated with feelings of happiness. Research has shown that close positive relationships improve health and reduce the likelihood of premature death. “Friendship is the strongest antidote for all misfortunes,” said Seneca.

Factors that contribute to the formation of attraction(attachment, sympathy):

• frequency of mutual social contacts, proximity, geographical proximity (most people enter into friendship and marriage with those who live in the neighborhood, studied in the same class, work in the same company, i.e. with those who lived, studied, worked nearby; proximity allows people to meet often, to discover similarities in each other, to exchange signs of attention);
• physical attractiveness (men tend to love women for their appearance, but women also like attractive men. They like beauty);
• the phenomenon of “peers” (people tend to choose their friends and especially marry those who are their peers not only in terms of intellectual level, but also in terms of attractiveness. Fromm wrote: “Often love is nothing more than a mutually beneficial exchange between two people, in which the parties to the transaction receive the maximum of what they can expect, taking into account their value in the personality market. "In couples where attractiveness was different, usually the less attractive one has a compensatory quality. ""Men usually offer status and are looking for attractiveness, and women are more likely to do the opposite, so young beauties often marry older men who occupy high position in society);
• the more attractive the person, the more likely it is to attribute positive personal qualities(this is a stereotype of physical attractiveness: what is beautiful is good; people unconsciously believe that other things being equal, the more beautiful are happier, sexier, more sociable, smarter and luckier, although not more honest or caring towards other people. More attractive people have more prestigious job, earn more);
• The "contrast effect" can negatively affect attraction - for example, men who have just looked at magazine beauties, ordinary women, including their own wives, seem less attractive; decreased sexual satisfaction with a partner after watching pornographic films);
• "amplification effect" - when we find features in someone that are similar to ours, this makes the person more attractive to us; the more two people love each other, the more physically attractive they find each other and the less attractive all other people of the opposite sex seem to them);
• the similarity of social origin, the similarity of interests, views is important for establishing relationships (“we love those who are like us and do the same as we do,” Aristotle pointed out);
• and for their continuation, complementarity, competence in a field close to our interests is necessary;
• we like those who like us;
• if feeling dignity a person was wounded by some previous situation, then he will like a new acquaintance who benevolently pays attention to him to a greater extent (this helps to explain why sometimes people fall so passionately in love after having previously been rejected by another, thereby affecting their self-esteem);
• reward theory of attraction: the theory that we like those people whose behavior is beneficial to us, or those with whom we associate events that are beneficial to us;
• the principle of mutually beneficial exchange or equal participation: what you and your partner receive from your relationship should be proportional to what each of you invests in it.

If two or more people are connected by a lot, the proximity factor is formed, if their connections improve, they do something pleasant for each other - sympathy is formed; if they see dignity in each other, recognize the right for themselves and others to be as they are, then respect is formed. Forms of interaction such as friendship and love satisfy people's need for acceptance. Friendship and love outwardly look like a pastime, but there is always a clearly fixed partner in relation to whom sympathy is felt. Friendship includes a factor of sympathy and respect, love differs from friendship in an enhanced sexual component, i.e.

love = sexual attraction + liking + respect;

in the case of falling in love, there is only a combination of sexual attraction and sympathy. These forms of interaction differ from all others in that they necessarily contain hidden transactions "Child-Child", expressing mutual recognition and sympathy. People can discuss any problems, even at a quite adult and serious level, nevertheless, in their every word and gesture, “I like you” will be visible. Some features are characteristic of all friendships and love attachments: mutual understanding, dedication, pleasure from being with a loved one, care, responsibility, intimate trust, self-disclosure (discovery of innermost thoughts and experiences in front of another person). (“What is a friend? This is a person with whom you dare to be yourself” - F. Crane).

The leader must know the structure of interpersonal relationships in order to be able to find individual approach to each member of the group. When organizing any type of activity, it is useful to keep in mind those real groups (3-5 people each) that are in the team, to unite people who sympathize with each other. So, a group of people who is quite authoritative in the team can lead the preparation and holding of a certain event, because relying on their social circle, people can perform organizational functions much more effectively. Given the real-life interpersonal connections, the leader achieves a dual goal: to include group members in collective life and to influence the life of the group itself.

There is a distinction between "formal" leadership, where influence comes from an official position in an organization, and "informal, natural" leadership, where influence comes from others recognizing the leader's personal superiority.

What is the difference between a leader and a manager?

The informal leader is put forward "from below", and the leader is appointed officially, from the outside, and he needs official authority to manage people.

The manager is a professionally trained leader.

Many believe that all problems are solved if the manager manages to combine the functions of a leader and a leader in his activities. But these functions in practice are often not only not combined, but also opposite. The leader can partially take on the functions of a leader. If for the leader moral criteria are in the foreground, then the leader is mainly occupied with the functions of control and distribution.

The word "leader" literally means "leading by the hand." The same meaning is better expressed in the word “overseer”, which is practically not used today. It is essential for every organization to have a person responsible for overseeing all departments as a whole, and not just completely absorbed in performing specialized tasks. This kind of responsibility - to look after the whole - is the essence of the work of the leader.

The leader performs the main managerial functions: planning, organization, motivation, control of the activities of subordinates and the organization as a whole.

Leadership is process management:

1. coordination of various activities of the group;
2. see the dynamics of the process within the group and manage it.

The scope of leadership includes three blocks:

1. organizational forms, distribution of responsibilities in setting goals, creation of information structures;
2. working with individuals and groups;
3. use of power and decision making.

The officially appointed leader has the advantage of winning leadership positions in the group and therefore, more often than anyone else, becomes the recognized leader. However, his status in the organization and the fact that he is appointed "from outside" puts him in a position somewhat different from that of informal natural leaders. First of all, the desire to move up the corporate ladder prompts him to identify himself with larger divisions of the organization than with a group of his subordinates. He may consider that emotional attachment to some working group should not serve as a brake on this path, and therefore to identify yourself with the leadership of the organization is a source of satisfaction for his personal ambitions. But if he knows that he will not rise above, and does not particularly strive for this, often such a leader strongly identifies himself with his subordinates and does everything in his power to protect their interests. In addition to the fact that the leader's commitment to his group may conflict with his personal ambitions, it may conflict with his commitment to the leadership of the organization. On the basis of such conflicts, one of the most important functions of the leader grows - the function of reconciling the values ​​and objectives of the group he leads with the goals of a larger unit of the organization.

The leader needs official authority to manage people, he also needs power - the ability to influence "from above" the behavior of other people. Power can take many forms. American scientists Fred Raven distinguish:

1. power based on coercion;
2. power based on reward;
3. expert power (based on special knowledge that others do not have);
4. reference power or power of example (subordinates try to be like their attractive and respected leader);
5. legal or traditional authority (one person is subordinate to another person on the basis that they are at different hierarchical levels in the organization.

The most effective option is if the leader has all these types of power.

An incompetent leader, as Dixon points out:

1. does not take into account human resources, does not know how to work with people;
2. shows conservatism, adheres to outdated views;
3. shows a tendency to turn away or ignore information that is incomprehensible to him, or conflicts with the existing concept;
4. tends to underestimate opponents;
5. shows indecisiveness and a tendency to evade responsibility in decision-making;
6. shows stubborn intransigence, stubbornness in solving the problem despite the obvious changed circumstances;
7. is not able to collect and verify information about the problem, “enter the current situation”, shows a tendency to “fail at the end”;
8. predisposed to frontal attacks, believes in brute force, and not in resourcefulness and diplomacy;
9. unable to use surprises;
10. shows an unjustified willingness to find "expiatory sacrifices" in case of difficulties;
11. predisposed to juggling facts and disseminating information with motives "incompatible with morality and security";
12. inclined to believe in mystical forces - fate, the fatality of failures, etc.

Features of the managerial and leadership qualities of a leader are also determined by his managerial style. There is a certain classification here.

1. Authoritarian. The best from the point of view of an administrator who, in any business, above all appreciates unity of command.
2. Emergency.“Come on, let’s figure it out later” is the motto of the head-crazy man. A measure suitable for an exceptional situation, becoming a system, disorganizes normal work, leads to conflicts, discontent in the team, not to mention modest labor results.
3. Business. Opposite to emergency, it involves working according to calculated and optimal schemes. This style could be preferred to all others, if only the work allows it: it does not contain unexpected surprises and is predictable.
4. Democratic. Leaders-organizers tend to it, managing according to the principle: "My point of view is one of the possible." It is this style that is able to give the best results, but up to certain limits, beyond which the matter is replaced by its discussion.
5. Liberal. Suitable for a close-knit team of like-minded people. Instead of independence, it promotes irresponsibility and confidence that "work is not a wolf."
6. Compromise. It is based on the ability of the leader, yielding to people with different interests, to achieve their goals. But if compromises become a habit and replace adherence to principles with conciliation, then one cannot expect good things from such a leader. The relationship of subordinates with the leader, the psychological climate of the team, the results of the work of the team depend on the style of management implemented by the leader.

The following management styles are distinguished.

Authoritarian(either directive or dictatorial) management style: it is characterized by a rigid sole decision-making by the head of all decisions (“minimum democracy”), strict constant control over the implementation of decisions with the threat of punishment (“maximum control”), lack of interest in the employee as a person. Due to constant monitoring, this management style provides quite acceptable results of work (according to non-psychological criteria: profit, productivity, product quality can be good), but there are more disadvantages than advantages: 1) high probability of erroneous decisions; 2) suppression of initiative, creativity of subordinates, slowing down innovations, stagnation, passivity of employees; 3) people's dissatisfaction with their work, their position in the team; 4) an unfavorable psychological climate ("toadies", "scapegoats", intrigues) causes an increased psychological stress load, is harmful to the mental and physical health. This management style is expedient and justified only in critical situations (accidents, military operations, etc.).

Democratic(or collective) management style: management decisions are made on the basis of discussing the problem, taking into account the opinions and initiatives of employees (“maximum democracy”), the implementation of the decisions made is controlled by both the manager and the employees themselves (“maximum control”), the manager shows interest and benevolent attention to the personality of employees, to taking into account their interests, needs, characteristics.

Democratic style is the most effective, because. it provides a high probability of correct balanced decisions, high production results of labor, initiative, activity of employees, satisfaction of people with their work and team membership, a favorable psychological climate and team cohesion. However, the implementation democratic style is possible with high intellectual, organizational, communication skills of the leader.

liberal anarchist(or conniving or neutral) leadership style is characterized, on the one hand, by “maximum democracy” (everyone can express their positions, but they do not strive to achieve real accounting, coordination of positions), and on the other hand, “minimum control” (even the decisions made are not fulfilled, there is no control over their implementation, everything is left to "spontaneous"), as a result of which the results of work are usually low, people are not satisfied with their work, the manager, the psychological climate in the team is unfavorable, there is no cooperation, there is no incentive to work conscientiously, the sections of work add up From the individual interests of the leaders of the subgroup, hidden and obvious conflicts are possible, there is a stratification into conflicting subgroups.

Inconsistent(illogical) style of leadership is manifested in the unpredictable transition of the leader from one style to another (either authoritarian, then conniving, then democratic, then again authoritarian, etc.), which leads to extremely low performance and maximum amount conflicts and problems.

The management style of an effective manager is flexible, individual and situational.

Situational management style flexibly takes into account the level of psychological development of subordinates and the team (P. Hersey, K. Blanded).

An effective management style (according to most foreign management experts) is participatory(participatory) style, which is characterized by the following features:

1. regular meetings of the head with subordinates;
2. openness in relations between the leader and subordinates;
3. involvement of subordinates in the development and adoption of organizational decisions;
4. delegation by the head to subordinates of a number of powers, rights;
5. participation of ordinary workers both in planning and in the implementation of organizational changes;
6. creation of special group structures, endowed with the right of independent decision-making (“quality control groups”);
7. providing the employee with the opportunity to autonomously (from other members of the organization) develop problems, new ideas.

Participatory style applicable if: 1) the leader is self-confident, has a high educational and creative level, knows how to appreciate and use the creative proposals of subordinates; 2) subordinates have high level knowledge, skills, the need for creativity, independence, personal growth, interest in work; 3) the task facing people involves a plurality of solutions, requires theoretical analysis and high professionalism of execution, rather strenuous efforts and a creative approach. Thus, this style is appropriate in science-intensive industries, in innovative firms, and in scientific organizations.

Depending on the characteristics of the leader's behavior in conflict situations, complex There are five types of situations:

1. domination, assertion of one's position at any cost;
2. compliance, subordination, conflict smoothing;
3. compromise, positional bargaining (“I will yield to you, you to me”);
4. cooperation, creating a mutual focus on a reasonable and fair resolution of the conflict, taking into account the legitimate interests of both parties;
5. avoidance conflict, leaving the situation, ("closing the eyes, as if nothing had happened").

The most effective, albeit difficult to implement, style of behavior of a leader in a conflict situation is the style of "cooperation". Extremely unfavorable styles are “avoidance”, “dominance”, “compliance”, and the “compromise” style allows you to achieve only a temporary short-lived solution to the conflict, later it may reappear.

The criterion for the effectiveness of leadership is the degree of authority of the leader. Allocate three forms of leader authority:1) formal authority, due to the set of powers, rights that gives the leader the position he occupies.

The formal, official authority of the leader is able to provide no more than 65% of the influence of the leader on his subordinates; A manager can get a 100% return on an employee only by additionally relying on his psychological authority, which consists of 2) moral and 3) functional authority.

Moral authority depends on moral qualities leader. Functional authority is determined by: 1) the competence of the manager; 2) his business qualities; 3) his attitude towards his professional activity. The low functional authority of the leader leads, as a rule, to the loss of his influence on subordinates, which causes, as a compensatory, an aggressive reaction on the part of the leader towards subordinates, a deterioration in the psychological climate and the results of the team's activities.

TEST QUESTIONS

1. Why do people interact? What theories of interpersonal interaction, in your opinion, more fully reveal the nature of interaction?
2. What conditions contribute to the formation social groups? What is a social group?
3. Interpersonal relationships in a group - how do they manifest themselves? How do we perceive and evaluate people?
4. What types of attitudes to the perception of another person are possible? Why are there distorted ideas about another person?
5. What psychological mechanisms of influence of people on each other exist?
6. What are the levels of understanding of another person's personality?can you?
7. What is sociometric status? What layers stand out within the group?
8. How to assess the level of well-being of relationships in a group?
9. What kind features specific to small groups?
10. What kind psychological characteristics belong to the group?
11. What is the reference group? Describe the features of pyramidal, random, open, synchronous groups.
12. What are the roles of people in a group?
13. Specify distinctive features team, its structure from strat-layers, the stages of creating a team.
14. What are the stages of team maturity?
15. What are the characteristics of a leader with a high ability to create a team?
16. What factors affect the effectiveness of a group?
17. What socio-psychological phenomena of the influence of people and groups on a person arise?
18. Conformity - is it bad or good? Is it natural or artificial?
19. How can the minority influence the majority?
20. What are the functions of socio-psychological attitudes?
21. What are the similarities and differences between contagion, suggestion, persuasion?
22. What methods of influencing the motives, attitudes and states of people do you know?
23. "Stars", "preferred", "neglected", "isolated", "rejected" in the group - how can they be reliably distinguished?
24. Leadership styles - what are they and which ones are more effective?
25. How are the main managerial functions implemented by the head?

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